McCarthyism

The communism influence of the Soviet Union caused Americans to believe that there are security concerns to their country. At the height of WWII, many Americans joined the communist party, in fact, 100,000 did and it caused people to fear that American loyalty was to the Soviet Union.
Everywhere in the country, communist influence in spreading and subtle propagandas is believed to be incorporated to that American society. In entertainment movies are believed to inclined communist ideals and many movie stars and directors are suspected to be parrot of the spreading infiltration. Many were turned down for jobs and even tried for nonexistent crimes because they were believe to be for the communism.
President Truman was against the McCarran internal security act which made it unlawful to plan any action that may lead to dictatorship. He said that “in a free country we punish men for the crimes they commit but never for the opinions the have.” However congress passed the law over Truman’s veto.
On the other hand Senator Joseph McCarthy took advantage of the growing concern over communism and he started to make unsupported accusations about communism. The attacks on suspected communists gained the name McCarthyism in the 1950’s. The questions of loyalty were more targeted and he even went as fast as accusing the state department saying he has 67, 81 and 205 names of the communists in the state department.
Even though they knew of the unlawful actins of McCarthy republican did little to stop him. This made sure that the public saw them purging the nation of communists.
McCarthy gained public support for bullying witnesses and even accused the US Army for being communists.
The senate finally stops him by saying that he has “brought the senate into dishonor and disrepute.”
Some of the causes that happened due to McCarthyism was the Soviets developed the atomic bomb much quicker than expected. Also the soviets successfully establish communist regimes in Eastern Europe after World War II. In addition the Korean War ends in a stalemate and the Republicans gain politically by accusing Truman and Democrats of being soft on communism.
Effects to these causes were that millions of Americans were forced to take loyalty oaths and undergo loyalty investigations. Also activism by labor unions goes into decline. Lastly many people were afraid to speak out on public issues and Anti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policy.

An Unfair Relocation

When World War II came about, it brought tragic results for the Japanese-Americans. At the time, there were approximately 120,000 Japanese-Americans living in the US, mostly concentrated on the West Coast. The attack on Pearl Harbor stunned the US, and the Americans believed that the Japanese would strike again. Shortly thereafter, rumors of sabotage surfaced concerning the Japanese and how they were supposedly poisoning vegetables. Feelings of prejudice swept the nation until, in 1942, the War Department called for the evacuation of all the Japanese-Americans. The internment, or confinement, of 110 thousand Japanese-Americans soon followed and they were shipped to 10 hastily-made relocation centers in California, Washington, Oregon, and Arizona. 1,444 Hawiian Japanese were sent to camps, approximately 1% of the Japanese population in Hawaii. Two thirds of the people that had been relocated were Nisei, or people who were born in the United States but their parents had immigrated from Japan. Thousands of Nisei were already in the army.

The Japanese-Americans were relocated even though there were no charges against them, no evidence of wrong-doing, and people were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and belongings for less than they were worth. In the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the relocation was justified. "Military necessity" was the reasoning behind the declaration. After the war ended, the Japanese-American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government to compensate for lost property. In 1965, Congress gave $38 million to Japanese who had been interned. However, that was less than 10 percent of the actual loss that they suffered. The JACL didn't give up. In 1978, they called for reparations for each individual who was affected by the relocation. It wouldn't be until a decade later that President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that granted 20 thousand dollars to each Japanese-American who was sent to an internment camp. These checks were sent out in 1990 along with a letter of apology from President George Bush. The United States had finally recognized their wrongdoings and had apologized for them.

By Becky and Liane

The Kennedy Administration

John F. Kennedy won the 1960’s presidential election against the republican vice president Richard M. Nixon. During this election, the first ever television debate was held. This opened the world to television-influenced campaigns. Kennedy’s appearance and great public speaking abilities won over the hearts of the television viewers, but Nixon’s expertise in foreign policy won over the radio audience. Ultimately Kennedy charisma won him the election in one of the closest votes since 1884.
Kennedy surrounded himself with the best and smartest administration, as well as some of the youngest minds ever to join the White House team. This inspired younger generations to become more proactive in the political era. He hired Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor Company, to be his secretary of defense and McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University dean, as his national security advisor. Although Kennedy hired many successful men for his team, his most trusted advisor was his brother Robert Kennedy, whom he appointed his attorney general.
Family played a crucial role in his administration. His family life made it to the public and won over the people. Jacqueline Kennedy influenced women as a fashion and mother icon. His children Caroline and John shed light on the fact that the president was a father to two young children.
Kennedy believed in a flexible response policy in order to avoid a major conflict with nuclear equipped countries. He boosted military spending to form the Special Forces (the Green Berets) to strengthen non-nuclear artillery.
The most important set of changes came in the New Frontier, bringing his goal to explore the uncharted areas in science and space. He began the Space Race in order to get an American to the moon, by boosting research with NASA. He addressed economic issues with poverty and reached out to foreign countries founding the Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress.
Unfortunately, before many of his plans could be fully carried out, he was assassinated. On November 22, 1963, while traveling through Dallas, TX, John F. Kennedy was shot in the head. This ended his reign in the White House, leaving many Americans devastated and in desperate need of a new leader.

By: Noel and Liz

Rise and Fall of McCarthy

Fear of communism began in the 1947’s, when communists took over in China. America started to discriminate against people who seemed to be communist. America’s fear grew in 1949, when the Soviets exploded the atomic bomb.

When Joseph McCarthy, republican senator from Wisconsin, saw how America was scared of communism, he took advantage of it. He had been ineffective in the Senate and he realized he needed to get an edge to be reelected in 1952. He used America’s fear of communism as the driving factor in his campaign. McCarthy would accuse people of following communist ways without evidence. This accusation became known as McCarthyism. He did so in the Senate because there, he had legal immunity that protected him from being sued. He accused 205 people of being communist in the State Department and accused the Democratic Party “20 years of treason” for allowing communists into the government. His drive for his campaign worked for a while but eventually, it also led to his downfall. In 1954, McCarthy accused the US army of following communist means. This accusation was televised nationally. He went too far as to bully the witnesses and he was condemned from the Senate of bringing dishonor. Joseph McCarthy would 3 years later, die of alcoholism.

The best and the brightest

The Kennedy Administration was known as “the best and the brightest”. Among Kennedy’s administration was his brother, Robert Kennedy who He appointed Attorney General. Kennedy’s administration was faced with issues at the beginning of office, such as the cold war and the civil rights movement. To combat the cold war Kennedy’s administration developed a policy of flexible response, where they spent more money on conventional military forces, and spent less on nuclear ones. One of Kennedy’s most risky political decisions, taking blame for the Bay of Pigs invasion became one of his most trusting and reassuring actions the American People. Kennedy’s administration inspired many Americans, showing them that anyone no matter how young can succeed, because of his young and inexperienced administration. Among the issues his administration faced the Berlin crisis was the most stressful, being on the brink of nuclear war. Another one of the greatest accomplishments of the Kennedy administration include the space program, where Kennedy pushed for people to aspire to the new frontier. As well as foreign affairs Kennedy’s administration improved domestic problems such as coming out of a recession, and improving unemployment relief. Lastly, Kennedy’s administration started to improve civil rights and cut taxes by 10 billion dollars.

The Civil Rights Movement

The events of World War II largely set the platform for the Civil Rights movement. Demands for soldiers to fight opened up job opportunities at home, and nearly a million African Americans served in the armed forces. This demand for soldiers forced the army to end previous discriminatory policies that kept African Americans from serving in fighting units, and the returning soldiers were determined to fight for their own freedom after defeating facist regimes across the globe. The legal battles of the desegregation campaign were led by the NAACP, which in turn was led by lawyer Thurgood Marshall. In 1938 he structured a team of his best law students and his team won 29 out of 32 cases they argued in front of the Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a milestone win, ending with the Supreme Court striking down segregation in schools as an unconstitutional violation of the 14^th Amendment.

Eighteen months later, in December 1955, Rosa Parks, a NAACP officer, stood up for herself by refusing to give up her seat on a bus which ended with her getting arrested. In response, leaders of the African American community formed a Montgomery bus boycott, and elected the 26 year old Martin Luther King to lead the campaign. King called his brand of non-violent resistance “soul force” and based it on the teachings of Philip Randolph, Henry David Thoreau, Ghandi and Jesus.

After the Montgomery bus boycott success, King founded the South Christian Leadership Conference to carry out non-violent crusades against injustice. They staged protests and demonstrations through out the South, and more committees formed on their own. These included Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). These committees organized the first sit-ins, and through their efforts the dream of racial equality was finally becoming a reality.

By Matt M. and Paris B.

Kennedy's Administration

The Kennedy Administration marked a new era at the White House with its energy and charisma.  Kennedy placed young and bright individuals to his advisory board including McGeorge Bundy as national security adviser, Robert McNamara as secretary of defense, Dean Rusk as secretary of state, and Robert Kennedy as attorney general.

His administration had focused on the Cold War and used flexible response in replacement of policy of massive retaliation as America’s policy towards the Soviet Union.  Then, he increased defense spending on military forces besides nuclear forces such as assembling an elite army called Special Forces. 

One of the most significant tests he encountered was America’s relation with Cuba.  Kennedy hesitantly decided to invade Cuba after deciding to overthrow Castro.  He and army officers ordered a group of Cuban exiles to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961 but the result was disastrous.  Castro’s troops with Soviet tanks and jet aircrafts defeated the Cuban exiles and captured them as prisoners, which damaged Kennedy’s administration.  Another incident that led to the brink of war with Soviet Union was the Cuban Missile Crisis where Kennedy informed the public about Soviet missiles in Cuba.  Fortunately, Kruschev agreed to remove the missiles in return for American pledge not to invade Cuba and demanded US secretly to remove missiles from Turkey.  Krushchev and Kennedy later set up a hot line between White House and Kremlin and agreed to sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty in order to ease the tensions of Cold War.

Domestically, Kennedy promised the nation to explore the New Frontier that included advancement in science, civil rights movement, and declination of the poverty rate.  However, Congress did not pass many of his proposals such as funding aids in education due to his lack of popular mandate.  However, he stimulated the economy by increasing government spending and lowering taxes, and created Peace Corps to give assistance to Asia, Africa, and Latin America.  In the science field, Kennedy funded NASA to prepare for a mission to the moon in order to surpass Soviet Union’s space race. 

Unfortunately, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963 after having been waving to a crowd in a car.  The nation was in grief and suspected Oswald assassinated Kennedy but conspiracy theories rose.  The Warren Commision in 1963 concluded that Oswald had shot the president but declared years later that Oswald was part of the conspiracy.

by Alvin 

Civil Rights movement in the 20th Century

In the early 20th century, there were a lot of changes in society marked by the Supreme Court's ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson. This landmark case enraged many of the African Americans who believed that "separate but equal" was not demolishing segregation, but rather enforcing it in the public. The NAACP ( National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed in 1909 by a number of African Americans with the support of prominent white reformers. In 1938, NAACP's leader, Thurgood Marshall, was placed as a law student to win 29 out of 32 before the Supreme Court. In the landmark case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,the father of Linda Brown had brought on a case to the Board of Education of Topeka. In the next few years, the case was proved to be unconstitutional, which allowed black students to enroll in white schools. The governor of Arkansas ignored the case, which then enraged the black community. Presdient Eisenhower called in the National Guard to go into a high school in Little Rock to protect 9 students, who are known as the Little Rock Nine. Many white parents and students were enraged with the decision, which caused an outbreak of anger towards the students. Many activists made their moves with the initiation of Rosa Park's refusal to give up her seat to a white man on the bus. This enraged the black community, which then caused a boycott on buses, which led to more than a year of no riding on public buses. Many of the activities were then brought out by profound leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, who supported the civil rights movement. King believed that their movement should be in peace rather than violence, while Malcolm X believed in building power physically.

-By Arthur C.

Civil Rights Movement: Malcolm X

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was very controversial. Those who were against him felt that he taught black supremacy, racism, and anti-semitism, while supporters viewed him as one of the most influencial African Americans fighting racism in a "White America." Indeed his ideas were radical; however, he fought for African American's rights in one of the harshest times for a black person living in America (besides slavery).

Malcolm X said, "It is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks. It is legal and lawful to own a shotgun or a rifle. We believe in obeying the the law.... The time has come for the American Negro to first fight back in self-defense whenever and wherever he is being unjustly and unlawfully attacked."

When Malcolm was young, he was alienated by the white society he lived in. His father was killed by white racists and his mother left him and his siblings because of an emotional collapse. Malcolm later went to jail for burglary and in jail is where he would join the Nation of Islam.

Malcolm X became widely known because his controversial stories and lessons gave the media a lot to write about. The main controversy was Malcolm X's call for armed self defense, which frightened many white people and moderate African Americans. After a disagreement in strategy between Elijiah Muhammad and Malcolm, Malcolm decided to start his own black muslim group. Like every orthodox Muslim, Malcolm made his trip to Mecca. On this trip, he learned that Islam preaches racial equality. When he came back, he had a new slogan "Ballots or Bullets." He said, "Well, if you and I don't use the ballot, we're going to be forced to use tge bullet. So let us try the ballot."

Malcolm X was shot while giving a speech in Harlem NY on February 21st, 1965. His legacy and influence still exists today.

Connor R

Course Notebooks due April 23

Just a reminder: Course notebooks are due on Friday - April 23. Look over your copy of the third quarter TOC. Compare it with the materials in your notebook. Good luck!