Colonial Courtship

In the colonial times, many regions in the United States had different practices when it came to courtship. Some areas considered marriage a sacred union, whereas others looked at it as a civil contract. In some communities, marriage between a couple was based on the linking of properties rather than love. Although there were many differences between each area, there seemed to be one universal concept of community involvement when it came to courtships, something that is not prevalent in our age.

The Frontier people, who lived in the more western regions where it was less civilized, based their marriages on an old ritual of "abducting the bride". The groom and his friends would come in and "steal" the bride, often with her consent. Their weddings were fun and crazy events. Puritans saw marriage as a civil contract. Adults strictly watched over the courtships. Before a couple was allowed to marry, Puritan leaders had to approve of the union. If it was passed, a very simple and quiet ceremony would proceed. Puritans were the only group that allowed divorce. In Virginia marriage was considered a sacred union, with a large emphasis on the joining of properties and money. Families were heavily involved. Quakers needed the consent of the entire community in order to get married, and were required to go through a 16-step courtship phase. Lastly, in the south, African slaves married in a "jumping the broom" ceremony, in which the community participated and attended.

-- Kelsey

The Jeffersonian Era

In 1800, Republican Thomas Jefferson ran against President John Adams, who was a Federalist. Although Jefferson won by eight electoral votes, his running mate, Aaron Burr, also received the same number of electoral votes, and the House of Representatives was called upon to break the tie. In the midst of the recasting all the ballots, Alexander Hamilton convinced some of the Federalists to cast blank votes because he believed Aaron Burr was unqualified to become president. This meant Aaron Burr didn't receive votes that he would have otherwise gotten and as a result, Jefferson won by two votes and became president, while Aaron Burr became vice-president. In order to avoid this kind of deadlock in the future, Congress passed the Twelfth Amendment, requiring electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice-president.

At the very beginning of Jefferson's presidency, a new law regarding the Supreme Court was established. At the very end of his presidency, John Adams had tried to appoint numerous federalists to the supreme court. However, William Marbury's commision was never delivered because Jefferson's secretary of state, James Madison, refused to deliver it. Marbury brought the case to the Supreme Court, claiming that Madison should be ordered to deliver his commission based on the Judiciary Act of 1789. The Supreme Court ruled against Marbury though, declaring that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. This established the law of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the right to declare a law passed by Congress unconstitutional.

When Jefferson became president, he began using his presidential power to modify the government based on his belief that people should have more control over the government, and that the government should be reduced and simplified (known as Jeffersonian republicanism). Jefferson lowered government expenses by first cutting back on the military, and eliminating internal taxes. In addition, Jefferson instigated the Louisiana Purchase by buying North American land from Napoleon, who offered to sell the land because he needed money. After this transaction in 1803, the United States doubled in size.

Written by: Derek O'Connor

Women and Power Through the Years

By Liane

From the very beginning of US History until present day, women have been fighting for equal rights as well as contributing greatly to our country. In the 1770s, before the American Revolution, women helped challenge British power. The average woman would make a stand by boycotting British goods, such as tea and clothes made in Britain. There were even women who stood out publicly. Such was Mary Goddard, who first printed copies of the Declaration of Independence including signatures.

In time, women began to grow increasingly incensed at the absence of women's suffrage. That is to say, women did not have the right to vote. The first women's suffrage movement was in 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. It was brought about by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. In this convention, Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments, featuring the call for greater women rights, especially suffrage for women.


Scene from Marry Poppins in which Mrs. Banks
sing of "Votes for Women", in reference to the
movement for women's suffrage


1913 Suffrage March, New York City

In 1920, more 50 years after the start of the women's suffrage movement, women finally gained the right to vote. The 19th Amendment was added to the Constitution, giving women the right that was so sought-after. However, this by no means granted women equality. From 1972 to 1982, women gradually began to work, instead of staying at home cooking, cleaning, and taking care of the children. But women were not paid equal salaries as men. The need for another amendment arose, and as such the Equal Rights Amendment was proposed. This would have given women the same social and economic rights as men, had it passed. Unfortunately, although millions defended it, the ERA was feared to bring about unwanted change. Because of this, the Equal Rights Amendment failed to be ratified for the Constitution.

Nevertheless, women have gained more and more equality every year. Taking a look at our society now, we see that women and men truly are more or less equal. Both men and women serve in Congress and the Senate, and women hold important positions socially and politically. Throughout the years, women have fought for, and eventually gained political power.

Women and Political Power

Women and Political Power

A common theme in world history has been putting women aside and having the men make all the decisions. Women were fighting for the rights that all men are born with. Society was in need for a serious change and everybody knew it.

In the 1770’s, women began protesting against the British by boycotting tea and British-made clothing. Sarah Morris Mifflin was shown in a painting spinning her own thread for knitting instead of using British thread. Small things like this started getting peoples attention.

In 1848, women became aware of their unequal status in society. Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched the first women’s suffrage movement in the U.S at the Seneca Falls convention in Seneca Falls New York. They mainly addressed how they wanted greater rights for women, especially the right to vote.

Women finally achieved the right to vote in 1920 by the nineteenth amendment. It took 72 years for men in society to finally understand where women were coming from. This was simply far too long.

In 1972-1982, women started entering the workplace and noticed that they were being treated unfairly. They were not being paid as much as men or treated as fairly. The Equal rights amendment passed and women hoped to obtain as equal rights as men. The ERA failed to be ratified for the constitution.

By 2001, 60 women served in the House and 13 served in the Senate. The rights of women have changed a lot over the centuries, but now its safe to say that we are really making improvements and hopefully we will have equality for men and women.

By: Victor

The Road to Revolution

     

The Battle of Bunker Hill Oliver Branch Petition

Under the harsh rule of the British, colonists in America decided to express their discontent at the First Continental Congress by fighting against their mother country.  The colonists raised troops with soldiers called minutemen and stockpiled weapons.  When Britain heard about these events, British General Thomas Gage decided to seize illegal weapons in Concord, Massachusetts in the spring of 1775.  Some colonists like Paul Revere warned the arrival of the king’s troops by using subtle signals such as church bells.

            The first battle of Revolutionary War finally broke out after 70 minutemen refused king’s troop’s demand to lay down their arms and ran away, which resulted in eight minutemen killed.  However, the British soldiers did not realize that thousands of minutemen were waiting for them in Concord where they were returning to Boston.  The minutemen successfully killed some British soldiers and the British soldiers retreated with humiliation. 

            After the incident in Concord, colonial leaders argued among themselves at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia over the actions they would take.  Some advocated for complete independence from Britain; while others wanted to recover the broken relationship.  In the end, they decided to appoint George Washington as the commander of the newly recognized Continental Army, which was formerly the colonial militia. 

            On June, 1775, British general Thomas Gage led a group of 2,400 men to Breed’s Hill, which was near Bunker Hill, to attack the militiamen.  The militiamen on the hill fought at the last minute against the soldiers and finally retreated.  In the Battle of Bunker Hill, 450 militiamen had died and Britain had 1,000 casualties.  Although the colonies were preparing for a potential war, many delegates at the Second Continental Congress were loyalists to their mother country who hoped for peace.  They sent an Olive Branch Petition in July to ask for the revival of past harmony between the colonies and Britain.  However, a Revolution War was inevitable when George III rejected the petition and issued a proclamation to urge the Parliament to blockade the American coast reasoning that the colonies were in a state of rebellion.

Written by Alvin

A Difficult Time

The Civil War transformed the lives of thousands of Americans, bringing many great hardships and casualties during the war. As the fighting intensified, conscription was introduced on both sides, requiring a draft that forced men to serve in the army. Although African Americans only encompassed 1% of the North’s population, about 180,000 African Americans fought for the Union, composing 10% of the Union Army. Horrible conditions and poor medical care led to heavy fatalities on both sides, with dysentery, body lice and diarrhea common. Conditions in the war prisons however were even worse, where disease ran rampant with overcrowding. The North was only slightly better, with an increased amount of food and space for prisoners. An estimated 15% of Union prisoners in South died in contrast to 12% of Confederate prisoners in the North died.

Thousands of women also contributed to the war effort, and many worked as army nurses. Clara Barton, a dedicated Union army nurse, treated soldiers at the front line and went on to found the American Red Cross after the war. Both sides benefited greatly because of the nursing effort by the women, and they became an invaluable resource as casualties skyrocketed.

Overall, the war obliterated the South’s economy and the Confederacy soon faced a food shortage, due to loss of manpower and Union control of food-growing areas. This led to food prices escalating sharply and the inflation rate rising 7,000%, greatly damaging the economy. The North’s economy on the other hand expanded with the war, as army supplies sustained woolen mills, steel foundries and other industries. This growing economy led to the first income tax by Congress, in an effort to help pay for the war.

By Matt M, Kiki G

Manifest Destiny - Journey to the West

During the early 1800s, many presidents bought land in the West to expand the nation's territory, such as the Louisiana Purchase, by Thomas Jefferson. Many Americans started moving West as a sign from God. Most of the Americans that moved to the West was because of the economic issues back in the East. American traders went to the Santa Fe Trail to gain a profit because of its economic advantage. Others took the Oregon Trail to fulfill their "destiny" in wooden-wheeled wagons while others pushed handcarts loaded with private possessions.

Mormons migrated to the west to escape prosecution from the government. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 settled disputes between the areas near the Canadian border, Maine and Minnesota. The border in the south was not so peaceful, as the Anglos fought the Tejanos, and intesified cultural issues. Texans declared independence from Mexico and ratified a constitution similar to the United States. The Treaty of Velasco, was signed by Santa Anna, which gave Texas its independence. President James K. Polk wanted to also claim California and New Mexico and negotiated secretly, but Mexico did not accept. President Polk called for war against Mexico and won California and New Mexico.

Protests, Resistance, and Violence during the Civil War

Connor

Cody

Anybody convicted of helping a runaway slave was fined up to $1000 and was imprisoned for up to 6 months. This upset many people in the northern states, who resisted the Fugitive Slave Act by creating organizations to send runaway slaves to Canada. The most famous organization was the Under Ground Railroad. Escaping slavery was a risky process, that meant traveling on foot at night without knowing any distance or direction to your destination. The Underground Railroad was created by free slaves and white abolitionists. They're job was to hide slaves in secret tunnels and false cupboards, provide them with food and clothing, and ultimately give them direction to the next station. One of the most famous abolitionists or "conductors" was Harriet Tubman, who was a former slave herself. Another famous abolitionist propoganda was the novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe called Uncle Tom's Cabin, which stressed that slavery wasn't just a political contest but a moral struggle. 

By the end of 1856, new political parties started to emerge. The Whigs party was unable to agree on a national platform, and it splintered with it's members looking for a pro slavery or pro union party to join. One party was the "American" party, which later became known as the 'Know-Nothing Party." They supported nativism- the supporting of native born people over immigrants. They soon split over the issue of slavery, and the "Souther Know - Nothings" joined the democratic party while the "Norther Know - Nothings" became republicans. Two anti-slavery parties emerged during the 1840's. The "Liberty Party's" goal was to pass new laws to abolish slavery. The "Free - Soil Party" apposed the extension of slavery into other neutral territories. Unlike other abolitionists, the "Free - Soilers" supported discriminatory laws which denied the rights for African American's votes. In 1854, the opponents of Slavery formed a new political party known as the "Republican Party." They opposed the Kansas- Nebraska act and in keeping slavery out of the neutral territories. As the party grew, it took in members from other political parties such as the, "Free - Soilers," "Whigs," "Democrats," and "Nativists" mostly from the north. The conservation faction hoped to bring back the Missouri compromise. During the election of 1856, the republican candidate was John C. Freemont. The Democratic candidate was James Buchanan. If Freemont had won, the south might have seceded; however, since Buchanan won, the threat of secession had been adverted. 

The Road to Revolution

The Road to Revolution
When the first continental Congress met New England, it stepped up to military preparations. In 1775, General Thomas Gage ordered his troops to march from Boston to Concord, Massachusetts to obtain legal weapons. In April 18th, 1775, the word that 700 troops were headed to Concord. The minutemen from Boston stood their ground and fought the British troops. The battle of Lexington lasted only fifteen minutes as the British prevailed. When the British marched back to Boston, there were 3000 to 4000 minutemen lined up and ambushed the British from behind stone walls.

The Second Continental Congress was written in May of 1775. Many called for independent and reconciliation with Great Britain. The continental army promoted George Washington as its commander. There were debates to their next move on Britain.

On June 17, 1775 over 2000 British soldiers led by General Thomas Gage went at war against the colonists on Bunker Hill.The Battle of Bunker Hill was the deadliest battle of the war. On July 8, 1775 Congress sent an Olive Branch Petition urging a return to “the former harmony” between Britain and the colonies. Britain’s King George rejected the petition. He ordered a naval blockade of lined ships for the American coast.

a poster of the Revolutionary War.

the Olive Branch Petition.

by: Sam C and Julian T

The Birth of Texas

After Mexico won its independence from Spain, they were eager to strengthen their land and their economy. To do this, they invited many settlers from the United States to buy and live on land in the province of Tejas--or Texas. Over 20,000 white settlers came down and started living in Texas, and soon outnumbered the Mexican population in the region. However, with Mexican politics becoming increasingly unstable, it became difficult for the white settlers to keep the peace with the Mexican government. When Santa Anna, the leader of Mexico, suspended local powers in Texas, they decided to rise up and revolt. Santa Anna holed up the Texan forces, lead by Lieutenant Colonel William Travis, in the Alamo. All 187 U.S. defenders were killed in the attack. Spurred by this attack, the Texan forces rallied together and suprised and captured Santa Anna near the San Jacinto River. They let Santa Anna go only after he signed the Treaty of Velasco, which granted indipendance to Texas. Over eight years later, president James K. Polk annexed the province of Texas, turning it into a state and a member of the Union.

Written By: Holt B

Life after the civil war

During the course of the civil war 360,000 union soldiers and 260,000 confederate soldiers died. The amount of soldiers that died totaled nearly all the amount of deaths from all other us wars combined. A contributor to these deaths was an advancement of military technology that far outweighed the medical technology of the day, the civil war was considered one of the last old wars or the first modern war. All of the destruction in the war, increased the federal government's power. They passed laws for income and conscription laws, and gave much more control over the individual citizen's laws. The economy of the north greatly increased while the south's was devastated,banning slave labor and destruction of farm land reduced their economy to almost nothing. The emancipation proclamation only freed slaves who lived in states that were behind confederate lines and not yet under union control. Lincoln believed the best course of action was a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery, this was known as the thirteenth amendment. Lincoln's further plans to reunify the nation after the civil war would go unknown, when he was assassinated on April 14th, 1865 five days after General Lee surrendered to Grant, by John Wilkes Booth, he escaped from authorities for 12 days, when he was found by union soldiers and then shot. The civil war was over, but the country was still divided between north and south, and four million newly freed African Americans now had to find their way as free men.

Written by Walker and Zack

Women gain Political Power

Women played a critical role in U.S history in every way while they did not receive an equal rights as men did. Throughout the U.S history, women had fought for their equal rights, mainly political power.

In 1770s, during the years of revolution, many women had boycotted and protested against the British. For example, Sarah Morris Miffin, made threads by herself rather than using British one. Also, Mary Goddard took more active roles as a first printer of Declaration of Independence.

In 1848, noticing the unequal rights for women, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott started the first women suffrage movement in the Seneca Falls convention in New York. They demanded equal right for women in the Declaration of Sentiments.

During mid 20th century, many women wanted equal payment as men had which led women to start Equal Rights Amendment Movement(ERA) to ratify the law. Although many people supported the movement, it failed due to the fears for unwanted change. Despite the failure of ERA, many women serves in the congress. 60women and 12women were serving in both House and the senate in 2001.

By Jinwoo

The North and South Fight It Out

By: Becky and Noel

The effects of the war swept through the nation leaving Americans in the face of tremendous change. Massive loss of life from both union and confederate soldiers was the price America payed for change. Due to the war, the government raised taxes, gaining more control of the citizens. Southern economy dwindled as the North thrived, widening the gap between the two groups.

Technological advances such as rifle, minie ball, lead bullets, and iron clad ships were created. They were more destructive than earlier weaponry. Hand grenades and land mines also became more lethal. These advances made for a more powerful militia.

The biggest change resulting from the Civil War was the addition of the 13th Amendment to the constitution. The Emancipation Proclamation had only freed slaves from confederate land but did not account for those under Union control. The U.S. needed to get rid of slavery all together. In 1865, President Lincoln ratified the 13th Amendment, abolishing all slavery . His words rang clear through the nation as he stated, "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States."

Tragically on April 14, 1865 Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. Sadness swept the nation. Over 7 million people publicly grieved for their late president. Although the Civil War had ended and slavery had been abolished, economic downfall and African-American integration loomed.

Dating in the Colonial Times

Written by: Madelaine, Micaela

The concept of dating today was not always how easy and free it was for everyone from 1630’s through 1770’s. They were more restrictions and culturally more laws and proper ways of courting someone. One of the customs from Scotland and Ireland was to steal the bride, but with her consent. The wedding is accompanied with drinking and wild dancing.
And some puritans who were not religious adults have to supervise the couple. One custom was that they used a courting stick to separate the man and his sweetheart the night when they sleep in the same bed. Before marring it was required for the couple to object any marriage issues that they see that is not proper. If there were no objections they would marry a civil ceremony and share a simple diner-no wedding receptions.
In the south many African slaves used the broomstick ritual where the groom and the bride jump over the broom to seal their marriage. And for some like the Quakers, the couples need consent not only form their parents but from the whole community. They go through a 16-step courtship. The Quaker women were known for rejecting the groom at the last minute. Also 16% of Quaker women were still single at the age of 50. Lastly in Virginia they considered their marriage as a sacred. The parents of the couple were largely involved in the negotiations because love was not necessary.
Over the next decades, wedding has been much easier to do. Couples are more impulsive than before and the sacredness of marriage is decreasing year after year.

Voting Rights

Voting Rights

After American colonists were free from Great Britain in 1776, the Voting Rights were not directly addressed in any constitutions or articles. As time went on, constitution had changed a lot. Voting Rights started to be extended to more citizens, enabling more people to participate in government.There were four main revolutions during the development of Voting Rights. The first one was in 1789, some states started to have male taxpayers votes, yet most states did not allow African Americans or males under the age of 21 to vote. African Americans had the voting rights since 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment to Constitution guaranteed African Americans the rights to vote. The third revolution was in 1920, when women were the sponsors of the revolution. And finally the Nineteenth Amendment allowed women to vote. Four years after the revolution, voting rights, as well as the citizenship, was extended to Native Americans. The final revision of the voting rights was in 1971, the Twenty-sixth Amendment. It stated that citizens “eighteen years of age of older” have the rights to vote.

African Americans voting in 1870

Women trying to receive the rights to vote in 1920

A 1920 Voting Pin

by, Sam C and Julian T

women and political power

Women throughout time helped and worked towards justice for all citizens. They fought for the rights of others and whatever they felt would make this country better. Towards 1848 women were becoming aware of how little power and rights they had. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott were the first two women to begin the women’s suffrage movement. The women’s suffrage demanded greater rights for women and the right to vote. Finally in 1920 they got their right to vote, but that was not all that needed to be changed. Later in the mid-1900s women started to see that things were still unequal, there was unequal status and pay for equal work. Although the Equal Rights Amendment was well supported if failed to be ratified for the constitution. Even though the ERA failed many women have hold strong positions not only politically but socially and economically too. In the 107th congress about 60 women served in the house. Also about 13 served in the senate, this shows the big improvement over time.

written by: Micaela

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

In 1854, a slave by the name of Dred Scott sued his master for the rights to his freedom. Scott claimed his master had brought him from the slave state of Missouri to the free territory of Wisconsin and the free state Illinois, before moving back to Missouri. Because his master had moved into free territory, Scott argued that he was no longer enslaved and should gain his freedom. When the federal court ruled against him however, Scott appealed to the Supreme Court. Finally, on March 6th 1857, the Supreme Court ruled against Scott. Chief Justice Robert Taney, who had written the Court’s decision, ruled that because Scott was a slave, he was not a citizen and had no rights to sue in a United States court. Additionally, Taney said that by banning slavery Congress was actually taking away property, a direct violation of the 5th amendment (Guarantees the right not to be deprived of property without due process of law). On that account, all congressional efforts to ban slavery in the territories were prohibited.
Justices John Mclean and Benjamin Curtis both strongly dissented on both points. They showed that the U.S. Constitution and other laws had recognized African Americans as citizens. Taney’s opinion in Dred Scott legally greatly expanded the reach of slavery, and politically heightened the tensions between the North and South.
In the end, it took five years of civil war to find if Taney’s opinion would be the law. Immediately after the war however, the federal government abolished slavery with the Thirteenth Amendment and then extended state and national citizenship with the Fourteenth Amendment to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States." Taney's opinion went on to be considered one of the worst decisions ever by the Supreme court, and the case could never be used as a precedent.

By Kiki G, Matt M

Voting Rights

Victor   9-2-09

         B period  

Voting Rights

            In 1776, American colonists declared independence from Great Britain. The drafted constitutions established voting rights for certain citizens, not everyone was included. The Articles of confederation did not address voting rights at all.  Through the years, amendments to the constitution would extend the voting rights to more citizens. Enabling more people to participate in local and national government.

In 1789, male property owners were mainly the only people allowed to vote. Although some free African Americans could vote, this was very rare. The voting age was 21 and mostly wealthy white males voted. Women were not yet allowed to vote.

            In 1870, the fifteenth amendment allowed African American males to vote.  Many African American males were held back from voting by the poll taxes that were abolished in the twenty fourth amendment in 1964. Literacy tests were than suspended by the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Women could still not yet vote.

            In 1920, the nineteenth amendment granted women voting rights. Brave women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony marched in a women’s suffrage parade in 1919.

            Then in 1924, citizenship was extended to Native Americans, which also gave them the right to vote.

            The latest change to the voting process was in 1971. The twenty sixth amendment was ratified and lowered the voting age to 18. The reason for this change was the fact that people were wondering why would the government draft 18-year-old kids to war but deny them the right to vote.

           

                                                            

 

Culture Clashes on the Prairie

Native American tribes covered the expanse of the Great Plains, extending from the west coast to the central grasslands. They were peaceful, believing that powerful spirits controlled the events of the world. The leaders of their group ruled by counsel but no one person dominated the group. They lived in small extended families along with others who spoke a common language. They also believed in open land, with no borders.

            The new American settlers moved towards the central United States in order to profit off of the land that was currently inhabited by several Native American tribes. To earn the rights to the land, they claimed that the tribal land was not being improved and was therefore should over to them. After approval from the government, the settlers began to sell off chunks of land and build major railroads.

            With the U.S. government gaining control, restrictions on the Native American tribes became harsher. The U.S. changed policies that reduced the sizes of the reservations and designated certain land to tribes. Borders and new policies were often blurred causing friction between the settlers and the Native Americans. When tensions rose too high, battles like the Massacre at Sand Creek (1864) and the Death on the Bozeman Trail (1866) took place.

            The United States government started assimilation, which entailed Native Americans to give up their beliefs so that they would follow the white culture. The 1887 Dawes Act tried to “Americanize” them. It broke up their land into smaller sections and then sold the remainder to settlers, while they received no profit for the sales of their land.

            Native Americans were highly dependant on the Buffalo population for food, shelter, and clothing. When the settlers came to the Great Plains, they hunted the Buffalo for sport, leaving the population dwindling. In just 70 years the Buffalo population went from 65 million to 1000.

            Constant U.S. interference with the Native American lifestyle grew tiresome. The settlers moved the tribes while they were suffering from disease and famine. One occurrence in particular took place when General Custer was moving the Sioux tribe. They got to Wounded Knee Creek when an anonymous shot was fired, causing the settlers to set open fire in return. Over 300 unarmed Native American men, women, and children were killed. That battle stood as the last fight of that era, and the fighting ceased after that night.

            The settlers assumed dominance against the peaceful Native American people. Although the tribes did not stand up against the settlers again, the tension remained between the two cultures. The American settlers continued to take over the land that was originally used for reservations. Soon the American population greatly outnumbered that of the Native Americans. 

By: Noel

Voting Rights

By Alvin            

  Although America was based on a representative government where the people chose elected government officials, voting rights in the beginning of the American history was limited to few.  At first, different states had different voting requirements since the Articles of Confederation did not set up guidelines regarding voting rights.  Most states only granted voting rights to male property owners but some states such as Georgia and Pennsylvania included all male taxpayers.  Mostly, states required the minimum voting age to be at least 21.  The new Constitution that replaced the Articles of Confederation did not extend voting rights and little changed.  The process to extend and guarantee voting rights to more groups in the national level was started when the Fifteenth Amendment passed in 1870. 

Even if some states in the early years extended the rights to free African Americans, it was not until the passage of Fifteenth Amendment that the federal government tried to guarantee the rights to African Americans.  Unfortunately, deep racial prejudice led states especially in the South to use methods such as poll taxes and literacy tests to prevent African Americans to exercise this right.  These unfair methods were finally suspended almost a century later through the passage of Twenty-fourth Amendment and Voting Rights Act.  

Up until 1920, women did not have the right to vote.  Continuous protests finally pressed the Congress to pass the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted voting rights to women, and in 1924, voting rights were further extended to all citizens who were at least 21 years of age including Native Americans.  Finally, the Twenty-sixth Amendment in 1971 granted rights to citizens of at least 18 years old.  This was a result of the controversy during the Vietnam War of not giving them the right to vote but permitted the government to draft them to the war.  Currently, voting rights are extended to all citizens who are over the age of 18 to enable more citizens to participate in shaping the local and national government.

The Colonists vs. The Redcoats

Becky and Liane

The American Revolution jumped into action because of four main events that took place in 1775: The Battle of Lexington, The Battle of Concord, the Second Continental Congress, and the Battle of Bunker Hill. The colonists had been growing tired of Britain keeping a hold over them, and they decided to put together an army of minutemen - civilians who pledged that they would be ready to fight at a minute's notice if the British were to attack. The civilians secretly collected firearms and ammunition until General Thomas Gage got wind of their plans and sent troops to Concord to seize the illegal weaponry. However, Paul Revere, Samuel Prescott, and William Dawes had other plans and on April 18, 1775 they set out to warn their fellow colonists of the arrival of 700 redcoats, or British soldiers. The next day 70 minutemen met the redcoats in Lexington, and when someone fired the battle began. In the end, several minutemen were killed, but only one British soldier died.

The British went on to Concord and encountered a few more minutemen. After a brief scuffle the redcoats began to retreat to Boston, but the return suddenly became a much larger battle when 3,000 to 4,000 minutemen arrived. Many British died and that night they made their return to Boston.

During the month of May, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. Although there was a great division between the colonists, the end result was that the colonial militia was recognized as the Continental Army and George Washington was appointed commander.

Soon after, General Thomas Gage decided to get back at the minutemen by attacking them at Breed's Hill, which is located near Bunker Hill. Come June 17, 2,400 redcoats marched up the hill and 1,000 were killed. Only 450 colonists died in battle. The worst battle of the revolution was incorrectly named The Battle of Bunker Hill. By now there was so much anger built up between the the colonists and the redcoats that the American Revolution could not be stopped.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Dred Scott, a slave, was taken by his owner from the slave state of Missouri to the free states of Illinois and Wisconsin, and then taken back to Missouri. In 1854, Dred Scott appealed to the supreme court for his right to freedom, claiming that by having lived in the free states, he should be a free man. After several years, the supreme came to their decision on March 6, 1857, ruling that Dred Scott would remain a slave.

Supreme Court justice Roger Taney's reasoning was that since slaves were not citizens, they had none of the rights guaranteed to citizens under the constitution. Therefore, Dred Scott didn't even have the right to bring a lawsuit to federal court. In addition, Roger Taney also ruled that any ban of slavery was a violation of the Fifth Amendment since this amendment guarantees the right to not be deprived to property, and at the time, slaves were seen as property.

However, two of the other Supreme Court justices dissented on these rulings, claiming that African Americans were given citizenship under several laws, state constitutions, and the U.S. Constitution. Most Northerners felt the trial was unfair because the majority of Supreme Court justices were Southerners, unfairly biasing the outcome of the decision. Although this was a setback for the slavery debate, tensions between the North and South increased, eventually culminating in the civil war. In 1865, the North won the civil war and the Thirteenth Amendment was written into the U.S. Constitution, abolishing slavery and effectively preventing the Dred Scott v. Sandford case from ever acting as a precedent. From then on, the reasoning originally used to decide the outcome of Dred Scott's trial could no longer be used again.

Written by Derek.

Expansion and Reduction Under Jeffersonian Politics

There was a number of great expansions and reductions to our country under the Presidents of the Jeffersonian era, and some of the most dynamic of these changes occurred under the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson was pitted against John Adams in the election of 1800. Jefferson won by eight electoral votes, but only after a heated election against both Adams and his own running mate, Aaron Burr. Once Jefferson officially ascended to the Presidency he began to limit the growth and control of the government. Jefferson's political ideology, called Jeffersonian Republicanism, supported a simpler and smaller federal government that worked best with the people. He reduced the size of the army and navy as well as limiting Hamilton's economic program. There was an reduction in government size, that was soon followed by an expansion of the nation. Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory from Napoleon Bonaparte in 1803, which doubled the size of the nation. To explore this newly gained territory, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to map and examine the new addition to the United States. Jefferson won his reelection in 1804, but his second term was overshadowed by a looming crisis. Increasing European conflict between Great Britain and France started to interfere with the United States trade routes. This problem would linger throughout Jefferson's second term and wouldnt be solved until the Monroe Doctrine in 1823.

The Road the Revolution

After the first continental congress was assembled, many colonial leaders and Minutemen in the eastern towns prepared for a battle by storing gunpowder and weapons. British commander, Thomas Gage noticed this movement against the British kingdom and sent troops to stop them. By April 18, 1775, as 700 British soldiers came to Lexington, minutemen were already ready for a battle. Although minutemen were prearranged for the battle, it was their defeat. Consequently, the British soldiers kept their journey to Concord but found nothing there and was about to go back to Boston. But, they were defeated by an unnoticed ambush. This battle of concord made British Army under siege in Boston. After few battles, the second Continental congress was assembled and it appointed George Washington as the commander of the Continental Army despite different opinions about how they are going to act from then. On June 17,1775, British commander Thomas Gage attacks Bunker Hill this time. The Continental Army caused more than 1,000 casualties to British troops but also 450 of them died. This battle of Bunker Hill is considered as the most brutal battle during the war. One month later, some colonists went to Britain hoping for peace, but King George rejected peace with their colony and decided to isolate them from others.
By Jinwoo

Dred Scott v Sandford

By: Arthur

The Supreme Court ruled a case with Dred Scott, a slave that was brought into the free lands by his owner. Scott appealed that he was indeed free because he had crossed the border between slave and free states. Scott himself could not be tried as a citizen, but treated as property. Chief Justice Taney claimed that if slaves were to be free after the borders, then property would be taken away by Congress. Scott was ruled to remain a slave because the Fifth Amendment protected property, in this case, Dred Scott. His trial was tried in 1854 and the case was closed on March 6th, 1857. The judges claimed that even though it took three years for them to come to a verdict, Dred Scott was never able to sue in the United States courts. Before the case had opened, many thought that they could limit slavery in the states. The final verdict of the case expanded the slaveholder's rights into free states. The verdict by the Justice was implanted onto the reasoning of the national law.

Soldiers and Citizens Life During the Civil War By Walker D. and Zack Y.

Slightly before the civil war started president Lincoln was elected, after that southerners believed they no longer had a say in how the nation was going to be run, quickly after South Carolina seceded and after that Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia , Louisiana and Texas all seceded and elected Jefferson Davis as the leader of their confederacy, as the north called for war after the southern capture of Fort Sumter, however this lead Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee seceded. the north would not let the south secede from the union and war broke out.
As the war raged on, more and more soldiers died which lead to conscription. All men black or white on the north side were drafted into the army. The regiments between African Americans and whites were segregated and blacks were given less pay, and commanded by a white officer. Many new recruits had been swayed by propaganda that entering and fighting in the war would be glorious, but as they fought through their first battles and many died they realized war was a filthy affair. The men on the southern side were plagued by hunger, many didn’t have proper latrines or even tent canvas, and medical care was vastly inferior to the power of the then modern weapons.
The prisons for each side were even more atrocious, lack of heat during winters caused many to die of pneumonia, the close quarters lead to a wildfire spread of diseases like dysentery, body lice, and diarrhea. The northern prisons were only slightly better, equally crowded but all had a decent amount of food to eat. Most historians estimate 15% of union soldiers died in southern prisons and 12% of confederate prisoners died in southern prisons.
Outside of the battle field an opportunity arose for women to do their part, 3,000 women served as union army nurses and some of them went on to found the American Red Cross, and on the other side thousands of women also became nurses, the effort of these women improved some of the care given by hospitals.
Prior to the war, the world was only a slightly different place in the south, African American men were technically free but Jim Crow laws and an intense hatred from whites impeded progress, in the north many black men faced less intense issues of segregation. Regardless the United States was broken in many places on both sides.

Women's Rise to Power

Written by: Madelaine

As time goes on, women have finally realized that there is more to life than sewing, cooking and washing. The fight for equal rights between men and women has started with simple boycotts of tea and other ‘industrialized’ technology, such as sewing machines, in the 70’s. Other women have their husbands supporting their ideals and took more distinct actions in helping voice the problem out to everyone such as Sarah Morris Mifflin (right picture). Some, like, Cady Stanton as well as Lucretia Mott launched the suffrage movement in 1848. In hopes for not only equal rights, they specifically pursued the right to vote and have their opinions voiced out. They also pushed the matter of lack of suffrage for women and in 1920, they finally gained the 19^th Amendment. This amendment states that women can finally be free to vote for whomever they believe in.
When the 1900s rolled along, women have been fighting for same status and economic rights as men- such as higher work positions and political power. Factory women feels that there is a gap between salary when some can do better jobs and have better skills in factory than men. This led to more women supporting the movement and for them to be able not only to gain rights but equality and respect-same amount, as what men are rewarded to. Nowadays, there are 60 women serving in the House as Representatives and 13 serving in the Senate. This states that when people work together for the same cause for the better, they can overcome even the impossible obstacles.