The WAr in the Pacific

Following Pearl Harbor, the Japanese set up an empire that stretched from mainland China to deep in the Pacific Ocean. When the Japaneses invaded the Philippines in 1941, General Douglas MacArthur was in command of 80,000 Allied troops battling the Japanese for control of the islands. The Allied forces were soon overrun however and had to retreat, but not without Gen. MacArthur pledging to return. It took until spring 1942 for the Allies to finally turn the tide against the Japanese, and they succeeded in stopping the Japanese drive to Australia in the five day Battle of the Coral Sea. The fighting in the battle was done exclusively by airplanes that took off from enormous carriers, and not a single shot was fired by the surface ships. It was the first time a Japanese invasion had been stopped and turned back however since Pearl Harbor.
The Japanese's next move was toward Midway, a strategic island northwest of Hawaii. American codebreakers had already cracked the Japanese code however and were prepared for the attack, Admiral Chester Nimitz led his forces to defend the island. On June 3rd, 1942, Allied scouts found the Japanese fleet with their planes still on the decks of their carriers and sent torpedo planes and dive bombers to attack. The result was devastating and in the words of a Japanese offical, the Americans had "avenged Pearl Harbor." The Battle of Midway proved to be a turning point the in Pacific War, and soon Allies began island hopping and regaining each territory lost to the Japanese.
In the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the Japanese sent their entire fleet into battle and also tested a new tactic, the kamikaze or suicide-plane. 424 Kamikaze pilots set off on suicide missions in the Philippines, sinking 16 ships and damaging 80 more. Despite this damage the battle was diasterous for Japan, losing almost its entire Imperial Navy ( 3 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 13 cruisers and 500 planes.) After retaking much of the PhilippineProxy-Connection: keep-alive
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2C the Allies set off towards Iwo Jima, a critical strategic outpost guarded by more than 20,700 Japanese troops. 6,000 Marines died taking the little island, the greatest number lost in the Pacific to that point, while only 200 Japanese survived. Only one island now stood in between the Allies and a final assault on the Japanese mainland, the island of Okinawa. In April 1945, U.S. Marines invaded the island, while the Japanese fired more than 1,900 kamikaze attacks, sinking 30 ships while damaging 300 more. By the end of the battle more than 7,600 Americans had died, but the Japanese paid a much worse price, losing more than 110,000. It was the last battle in the Pacific war due to the decision instead to drop the Atomic Bomb on Japan.

By Matt M and Paris

Liberty in 1955

The Civil Rights movement was from 1955 to 1968 where the U.S charged to outlaw racial discrimination against the African Americans. In this society rules were changed for public areas, and transportation but the right to vote was still restricted. African Americans felt that they didn’t receive that much. Soon Congress passed Johnson’s voting Rights of Act in 1965. In this act the literacy test was disqualified. Another movement during the Civil Rights Movement was in 1966. The Black Power Movement aimed to have freedom from oppression by white Americans. Organizations also took place for social equality like the NAACP, SNCC, CORE, and ,SCLC. These groups were called “Southern Freedom Movement. Issues like freedom, respect, dignity, and economic and social equality were worked on. These groups had some protests that were held by this crisis. Boycotts were held and a successful protest was the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 to 1956. This broadened the protests which included “sit-ins” and marches. These protests were also popular because it was protesting in nonviolence.
The Civil Rights Act began when John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Then President Lyndon B. Johnson pledged to follow the footsteps of JFK. On July 2, 1964 Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This banned discrimination on race, religion, and gender. Mother acts that restored rights were the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, and Fair Housing Act of 1968. All of these acts banned discrimination on voting, immigrants, and rental of housing on people of color. African Americans soon got their freedom on the rights that they deserve in the Civil Rights Movement. This was the starting point of equality and the change in view points that many people had. It gave liberty to many African Americans.

Mother's Day

Need an Academic Gift Certificate? Here is an easy way to earn one and do someone nice for that special woman in your life. For Mother's Day, write your mom, aunt, or grandma a poem. How about fixing breakfast for her? Burn her a CD full of her kind of music. You don't need to spend any money. Be creative! Ask your mom to send me an email message to tell me what you did for her on Mother's Day. Send the email to msanderson@pausd.org.

Eisenhower's Presidency

As Truman’s approval rating sank lower and lower toward the end of his presidency, the Republican and Democratic parties sought a new candidate to run in the 1952 election. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a WWII General who had become the Supreme Commander of NATO, was a prospective candidate for both parties. Although initially reluctant to pursue the presidency, Eisenhower eventually favored the Republican Party, since he believed the Democrats were placing too much emphasis on a centralized government. Eisenhower ran with Nixon as his vice-president, and won the popular vote.

As Coldwar tensions increased, Eisenhower’s foreign policy continued to put pressure on the Soviet Union. John Foster Dulles, Eisenhower’s secretary of state, developed a policy of brinkmanship – threatening to use nuclear force against the Soviet Union and any other aggressor nations who continued to spread communism. In addition, Eisenhower also began using the CIA to carry out covert operations against the Soviet Union, such as helping the pro-American Shah of Iran return to power, and toppling the suspected communist government of Guatemala. In 1957, Eisenhower issued the Eisenhower Doctrine, stating that the United States would defend the Middle East against attack from the Soviet Union. This was intended to counter the Soviet Union’s influence in the Middle East, since they had defended Egypt during the Suez War, and had gained popularity with Middle Eastern countries.

In spite of this, after Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, the new leader of the Soviet Union, favored a more peaceful policy where the United States and Soviet Union remained on generally fair terms with each other. Still, since 1955, the CIA had been spying by sending flights over Soviet territory, and the U-2 plane was used during these missions. By 1960, although Eisenhower wanted these flights discontinued, one last flight took place on May 1, the plane was shot down, and pilot Francis Powers was captured. When confronted by Khrushchev, Eisenhower denied the U-2 had been spying, but eventually he was forced to admit it. However, Eisenhower refused to apologize, and Khruschev called off a summit that would have been held between the United States and the Soviet Union, souring relations between the two powers.



written by: Derek O'Connor

McCarthyism

The communism influence of the Soviet Union caused Americans to believe that there are security concerns to their country. At the height of WWII, many Americans joined the communist party, in fact, 100,000 did and it caused people to fear that American loyalty was to the Soviet Union.
Everywhere in the country, communist influence in spreading and subtle propagandas is believed to be incorporated to that American society. In entertainment movies are believed to inclined communist ideals and many movie stars and directors are suspected to be parrot of the spreading infiltration. Many were turned down for jobs and even tried for nonexistent crimes because they were believe to be for the communism.
President Truman was against the McCarran internal security act which made it unlawful to plan any action that may lead to dictatorship. He said that “in a free country we punish men for the crimes they commit but never for the opinions the have.” However congress passed the law over Truman’s veto.
On the other hand Senator Joseph McCarthy took advantage of the growing concern over communism and he started to make unsupported accusations about communism. The attacks on suspected communists gained the name McCarthyism in the 1950’s. The questions of loyalty were more targeted and he even went as fast as accusing the state department saying he has 67, 81 and 205 names of the communists in the state department.
Even though they knew of the unlawful actins of McCarthy republican did little to stop him. This made sure that the public saw them purging the nation of communists.
McCarthy gained public support for bullying witnesses and even accused the US Army for being communists.
The senate finally stops him by saying that he has “brought the senate into dishonor and disrepute.”
Some of the causes that happened due to McCarthyism was the Soviets developed the atomic bomb much quicker than expected. Also the soviets successfully establish communist regimes in Eastern Europe after World War II. In addition the Korean War ends in a stalemate and the Republicans gain politically by accusing Truman and Democrats of being soft on communism.
Effects to these causes were that millions of Americans were forced to take loyalty oaths and undergo loyalty investigations. Also activism by labor unions goes into decline. Lastly many people were afraid to speak out on public issues and Anti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policy.

An Unfair Relocation

When World War II came about, it brought tragic results for the Japanese-Americans. At the time, there were approximately 120,000 Japanese-Americans living in the US, mostly concentrated on the West Coast. The attack on Pearl Harbor stunned the US, and the Americans believed that the Japanese would strike again. Shortly thereafter, rumors of sabotage surfaced concerning the Japanese and how they were supposedly poisoning vegetables. Feelings of prejudice swept the nation until, in 1942, the War Department called for the evacuation of all the Japanese-Americans. The internment, or confinement, of 110 thousand Japanese-Americans soon followed and they were shipped to 10 hastily-made relocation centers in California, Washington, Oregon, and Arizona. 1,444 Hawiian Japanese were sent to camps, approximately 1% of the Japanese population in Hawaii. Two thirds of the people that had been relocated were Nisei, or people who were born in the United States but their parents had immigrated from Japan. Thousands of Nisei were already in the army.

The Japanese-Americans were relocated even though there were no charges against them, no evidence of wrong-doing, and people were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and belongings for less than they were worth. In the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the relocation was justified. "Military necessity" was the reasoning behind the declaration. After the war ended, the Japanese-American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government to compensate for lost property. In 1965, Congress gave $38 million to Japanese who had been interned. However, that was less than 10 percent of the actual loss that they suffered. The JACL didn't give up. In 1978, they called for reparations for each individual who was affected by the relocation. It wouldn't be until a decade later that President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that granted 20 thousand dollars to each Japanese-American who was sent to an internment camp. These checks were sent out in 1990 along with a letter of apology from President George Bush. The United States had finally recognized their wrongdoings and had apologized for them.

By Becky and Liane

The Kennedy Administration

John F. Kennedy won the 1960’s presidential election against the republican vice president Richard M. Nixon. During this election, the first ever television debate was held. This opened the world to television-influenced campaigns. Kennedy’s appearance and great public speaking abilities won over the hearts of the television viewers, but Nixon’s expertise in foreign policy won over the radio audience. Ultimately Kennedy charisma won him the election in one of the closest votes since 1884.
Kennedy surrounded himself with the best and smartest administration, as well as some of the youngest minds ever to join the White House team. This inspired younger generations to become more proactive in the political era. He hired Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor Company, to be his secretary of defense and McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University dean, as his national security advisor. Although Kennedy hired many successful men for his team, his most trusted advisor was his brother Robert Kennedy, whom he appointed his attorney general.
Family played a crucial role in his administration. His family life made it to the public and won over the people. Jacqueline Kennedy influenced women as a fashion and mother icon. His children Caroline and John shed light on the fact that the president was a father to two young children.
Kennedy believed in a flexible response policy in order to avoid a major conflict with nuclear equipped countries. He boosted military spending to form the Special Forces (the Green Berets) to strengthen non-nuclear artillery.
The most important set of changes came in the New Frontier, bringing his goal to explore the uncharted areas in science and space. He began the Space Race in order to get an American to the moon, by boosting research with NASA. He addressed economic issues with poverty and reached out to foreign countries founding the Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress.
Unfortunately, before many of his plans could be fully carried out, he was assassinated. On November 22, 1963, while traveling through Dallas, TX, John F. Kennedy was shot in the head. This ended his reign in the White House, leaving many Americans devastated and in desperate need of a new leader.

By: Noel and Liz

Rise and Fall of McCarthy

Fear of communism began in the 1947’s, when communists took over in China. America started to discriminate against people who seemed to be communist. America’s fear grew in 1949, when the Soviets exploded the atomic bomb.

When Joseph McCarthy, republican senator from Wisconsin, saw how America was scared of communism, he took advantage of it. He had been ineffective in the Senate and he realized he needed to get an edge to be reelected in 1952. He used America’s fear of communism as the driving factor in his campaign. McCarthy would accuse people of following communist ways without evidence. This accusation became known as McCarthyism. He did so in the Senate because there, he had legal immunity that protected him from being sued. He accused 205 people of being communist in the State Department and accused the Democratic Party “20 years of treason” for allowing communists into the government. His drive for his campaign worked for a while but eventually, it also led to his downfall. In 1954, McCarthy accused the US army of following communist means. This accusation was televised nationally. He went too far as to bully the witnesses and he was condemned from the Senate of bringing dishonor. Joseph McCarthy would 3 years later, die of alcoholism.

The best and the brightest

The Kennedy Administration was known as “the best and the brightest”. Among Kennedy’s administration was his brother, Robert Kennedy who He appointed Attorney General. Kennedy’s administration was faced with issues at the beginning of office, such as the cold war and the civil rights movement. To combat the cold war Kennedy’s administration developed a policy of flexible response, where they spent more money on conventional military forces, and spent less on nuclear ones. One of Kennedy’s most risky political decisions, taking blame for the Bay of Pigs invasion became one of his most trusting and reassuring actions the American People. Kennedy’s administration inspired many Americans, showing them that anyone no matter how young can succeed, because of his young and inexperienced administration. Among the issues his administration faced the Berlin crisis was the most stressful, being on the brink of nuclear war. Another one of the greatest accomplishments of the Kennedy administration include the space program, where Kennedy pushed for people to aspire to the new frontier. As well as foreign affairs Kennedy’s administration improved domestic problems such as coming out of a recession, and improving unemployment relief. Lastly, Kennedy’s administration started to improve civil rights and cut taxes by 10 billion dollars.

The Civil Rights Movement

The events of World War II largely set the platform for the Civil Rights movement. Demands for soldiers to fight opened up job opportunities at home, and nearly a million African Americans served in the armed forces. This demand for soldiers forced the army to end previous discriminatory policies that kept African Americans from serving in fighting units, and the returning soldiers were determined to fight for their own freedom after defeating facist regimes across the globe. The legal battles of the desegregation campaign were led by the NAACP, which in turn was led by lawyer Thurgood Marshall. In 1938 he structured a team of his best law students and his team won 29 out of 32 cases they argued in front of the Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a milestone win, ending with the Supreme Court striking down segregation in schools as an unconstitutional violation of the 14^th Amendment.

Eighteen months later, in December 1955, Rosa Parks, a NAACP officer, stood up for herself by refusing to give up her seat on a bus which ended with her getting arrested. In response, leaders of the African American community formed a Montgomery bus boycott, and elected the 26 year old Martin Luther King to lead the campaign. King called his brand of non-violent resistance “soul force” and based it on the teachings of Philip Randolph, Henry David Thoreau, Ghandi and Jesus.

After the Montgomery bus boycott success, King founded the South Christian Leadership Conference to carry out non-violent crusades against injustice. They staged protests and demonstrations through out the South, and more committees formed on their own. These included Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). These committees organized the first sit-ins, and through their efforts the dream of racial equality was finally becoming a reality.

By Matt M. and Paris B.

Kennedy's Administration

The Kennedy Administration marked a new era at the White House with its energy and charisma.  Kennedy placed young and bright individuals to his advisory board including McGeorge Bundy as national security adviser, Robert McNamara as secretary of defense, Dean Rusk as secretary of state, and Robert Kennedy as attorney general.

His administration had focused on the Cold War and used flexible response in replacement of policy of massive retaliation as America’s policy towards the Soviet Union.  Then, he increased defense spending on military forces besides nuclear forces such as assembling an elite army called Special Forces. 

One of the most significant tests he encountered was America’s relation with Cuba.  Kennedy hesitantly decided to invade Cuba after deciding to overthrow Castro.  He and army officers ordered a group of Cuban exiles to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961 but the result was disastrous.  Castro’s troops with Soviet tanks and jet aircrafts defeated the Cuban exiles and captured them as prisoners, which damaged Kennedy’s administration.  Another incident that led to the brink of war with Soviet Union was the Cuban Missile Crisis where Kennedy informed the public about Soviet missiles in Cuba.  Fortunately, Kruschev agreed to remove the missiles in return for American pledge not to invade Cuba and demanded US secretly to remove missiles from Turkey.  Krushchev and Kennedy later set up a hot line between White House and Kremlin and agreed to sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty in order to ease the tensions of Cold War.

Domestically, Kennedy promised the nation to explore the New Frontier that included advancement in science, civil rights movement, and declination of the poverty rate.  However, Congress did not pass many of his proposals such as funding aids in education due to his lack of popular mandate.  However, he stimulated the economy by increasing government spending and lowering taxes, and created Peace Corps to give assistance to Asia, Africa, and Latin America.  In the science field, Kennedy funded NASA to prepare for a mission to the moon in order to surpass Soviet Union’s space race. 

Unfortunately, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963 after having been waving to a crowd in a car.  The nation was in grief and suspected Oswald assassinated Kennedy but conspiracy theories rose.  The Warren Commision in 1963 concluded that Oswald had shot the president but declared years later that Oswald was part of the conspiracy.

by Alvin 

Civil Rights movement in the 20th Century

In the early 20th century, there were a lot of changes in society marked by the Supreme Court's ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson. This landmark case enraged many of the African Americans who believed that "separate but equal" was not demolishing segregation, but rather enforcing it in the public. The NAACP ( National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed in 1909 by a number of African Americans with the support of prominent white reformers. In 1938, NAACP's leader, Thurgood Marshall, was placed as a law student to win 29 out of 32 before the Supreme Court. In the landmark case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,the father of Linda Brown had brought on a case to the Board of Education of Topeka. In the next few years, the case was proved to be unconstitutional, which allowed black students to enroll in white schools. The governor of Arkansas ignored the case, which then enraged the black community. Presdient Eisenhower called in the National Guard to go into a high school in Little Rock to protect 9 students, who are known as the Little Rock Nine. Many white parents and students were enraged with the decision, which caused an outbreak of anger towards the students. Many activists made their moves with the initiation of Rosa Park's refusal to give up her seat to a white man on the bus. This enraged the black community, which then caused a boycott on buses, which led to more than a year of no riding on public buses. Many of the activities were then brought out by profound leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, who supported the civil rights movement. King believed that their movement should be in peace rather than violence, while Malcolm X believed in building power physically.

-By Arthur C.

Civil Rights Movement: Malcolm X

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was very controversial. Those who were against him felt that he taught black supremacy, racism, and anti-semitism, while supporters viewed him as one of the most influencial African Americans fighting racism in a "White America." Indeed his ideas were radical; however, he fought for African American's rights in one of the harshest times for a black person living in America (besides slavery).

Malcolm X said, "It is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks. It is legal and lawful to own a shotgun or a rifle. We believe in obeying the the law.... The time has come for the American Negro to first fight back in self-defense whenever and wherever he is being unjustly and unlawfully attacked."

When Malcolm was young, he was alienated by the white society he lived in. His father was killed by white racists and his mother left him and his siblings because of an emotional collapse. Malcolm later went to jail for burglary and in jail is where he would join the Nation of Islam.

Malcolm X became widely known because his controversial stories and lessons gave the media a lot to write about. The main controversy was Malcolm X's call for armed self defense, which frightened many white people and moderate African Americans. After a disagreement in strategy between Elijiah Muhammad and Malcolm, Malcolm decided to start his own black muslim group. Like every orthodox Muslim, Malcolm made his trip to Mecca. On this trip, he learned that Islam preaches racial equality. When he came back, he had a new slogan "Ballots or Bullets." He said, "Well, if you and I don't use the ballot, we're going to be forced to use tge bullet. So let us try the ballot."

Malcolm X was shot while giving a speech in Harlem NY on February 21st, 1965. His legacy and influence still exists today.

Connor R

Course Notebooks due April 23

Just a reminder: Course notebooks are due on Friday - April 23. Look over your copy of the third quarter TOC. Compare it with the materials in your notebook. Good luck!

Spring Semester Project: Create a Web Site

Have you joined a group? Has the group selected a decade yet? Has your group decided on the four topics? If you like the cultural elements of the 1950's, select movies or movie stars like James Dean or Marilyn Monroe. What about 1960's politics? Think about the Bay of Pigs or Cuban Missile Crisis. If sports interest you, focus on one sport and one team like the UCLA Men's basketball team. Music? Think the 1970's and the Jackson Five.

The Kennedy Administration

Democratic Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy was elected the 35th president in Nov. 1960, replacing President Eisenhower. His charismatic personality in public, as well as his promise to "get America moving again", helped him gain the edge over his Republican opponent Richard Nixon. Kennedy concentrated strongly on military policies intended to improve upon those of the Eisenhower Administration.

After being sworn into office in Jan. 1961, Kennedy put more effort into competing with the Soviet Union’s military program, as the Soviets were gaining support in less developed countries, as well as in nearby Cuba. The increased funding for nonnuclear forces enabled the United States to indirectly fight smaller wars against the Soviet Union’s imperialism while avoiding an all-out nuclear war.

However, one of Kennedy’s critical errors was approving the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, originally conceptualized by the Eisenhower administration. This plan was intended to overthrow Castro, the new communist revolutionary leader of Cuba, with a small force of Cuban exiles and United States soldiers. When the American forces invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961, the Cuban troops backed by Soviet forces were more than a match for the American troops, and most of the invading exiles were imprisoned or killed. Following this disaster, Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the American prisoners, and Castro was able to openly accept Soviet aid without fear of retaliation from the United States.

In addition, Kennedy passed many policies based on his idea of progress called the New Frontier. For the economy, Kennedy had to deal with the recession in America, as well as the high unemployment. Therefore, Kennedy proposed a policy of deficit spending, meaning the United States Government would spend more money than it received. This opened up more jobs and stimulated the economy, reversing the stagnant economy from the Eisenhower era.

As for social issues such as poverty, Kennedy created the Peace Corps - a program of volunteers that helped people in developing nations like Asia, Africa, and Latin America. At home, although Kennedy was sympathetic towards civil rights activists like Martin Luther King, he was reluctant to actively pursue civil rights since he thought this would anger the white Southern congressmen who decided whether his bills got passed. However, Kennedy did overturn selective immigration, which at the time, were mainly European immigrants. He expanded the immigration to Asia and Latin America, placing emphasis on family reunion instead of race.

Although Kennedy's presidency was cut short by his asassination on Nov. 22, 1963, his administration greatly impacted the military, economic, and social policies of America.

Written by: Derek O'Connor

The New Frontier--Space

On April 12th, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human to visit "the new frontier," or Outer Space. The U.S.A's president at the time, John F. Kennedy, saw this as a challenge between the two super-powers and pledged to surpass it. Less than a month later, American astronaut Alan Shepard climbed into Freedom 7, a small capsule on top of a huge rocket, and blasted into space and back, reassuring the nation of its ingenuity. Later that year, America launched its own communications satellite, Telstar, to send live television pictures across the Atlantic. America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was also constructing new launch facilities in Cape Canaveral, Florida and a mission control center in Houston, Texas. The Space Race with the Soviets had begun. Addressing a crowd in Houston on September 12th, 1962, President Kennedy expressed his spirit and excitement for the space race by promising a man on the moon later that decade. Seven years later, on July 20th, 1969, the nation watched breathlessly as astronaut Neil Armstrong took the first steps on the moon to achieve this magnificent goal.

The Space program stimulated America in ways never expected, as the huge federal funding for research and development led to new industries and technologies, some of which were used in business and industry, and also consumer goods.

By Matt, Paris

Vietnam War

The United States believed they would easily conquer the Vietcong due to their superior military technology, although the jungle terrain and the guerilla warfare tactics were misleading for American troops. U.S. troops had difficulty fighting because they couldn't tell who their enemies were. The Vietcong had intricate tunnel systems from which they would attack from and then retreat. These tunnels connected underneath villages, allowing the Vietcong access into secure areas. The Vietcong also had booby traps that scared U.S. troops because of their brutality. To counteract the Vietcong’s traps, the U.S. used napalm and Agent Orange to eliminate the home terrain advantage. U.S. soldiers used the cause of combating communism as a way to believe in fighting the war. The Nations Selective Service System was enabled during the Vietnam War. Some men that were drafted could bribe doctors or find other ways of becoming exempt from the draft. Women were not allowed to serve in combat, although over 10000 served as nurses during the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War started a free speech and protest movement, arguing against war.

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks, a secretary of the NAACP, was remembered by her courage to refuse to give up her seat to a white man on bus in Montgomery that eventually changed the American society towards the attitude of segregation. Before the arrest of Rosa Parks on the Montgomery bus, she had protested against segregation before. For example, she chose to climb stairs when buildings had segregated elevators.

On December 1, 1955, she sat on the front row seat of the “colored” section of a Montgomery bus. After having decided that she needed to protest against segregation, she refused to give up her seat as the bus driver demanded in order to allow a white man to sit down without African Americans. Parks allowed the bus driver to call the police and she was arrested. After the news of her arrest spread, the NAACP leader E. D. Nixon and Jo Ann Robinson suggested a bus boycott with the support of African-American community. As a result , the Montgomery Improvement Association was formed to boycott riding on Montgomery bus. It was led by Martin Luther King Jr. and lasted for 381 days. Finally, Rosa Parks’ incident led to the Supreme Court to outlaw bus segregation. Rosa Parks’ actions had changed the American society.

By Alvin

Culture in the 1950's

In the 1950s, there was a great change in American culture, in popular media, such as books, music, and in formats that news were broadcast. There were a lot of changes in books, with authors like Isaac Asimov, with his science fiction book, I, Robot, which led to the possibility of living in space. In other books, authors started writing about how people could begin to choose their own futures and not be limited by their past generations. The idea spread about the conformity of society and people began emerging from their past destinies into a life where they could change their own paths to succeed.

In the music industry, there were many legends that began their careers, such as Frank Sinatra, and Elvis Presley. During the 1950s, the United States was raging about the newest type of music, "rock and roll" which was developed by Southern blues and gospel music with a strong beat. Elvis Presley emerged from the era as one of the most famous artist in the United States and is still remembered today. He brought the African American voice through his music and was greatly praised because the parents did not want their kids listening to "the devil's music". Frank Sinatra had also made a great appearance to the media as a crooner, a type of music that sings popular ballads.

In the news media, many broadcasting companies transferred from their radio stations into television stations. Television sets became popular in the 1950s with rising populations watching it. Many shows like, I Love Lucy, Lassie, Father Knows Best, and other comedies. Many variety shows, such as The Edward Sullivan Show and Disneyland, were very popular for the whole family to enjoy. The television sets changed the ways that American's hours at home, with more hours spent at home more than before, enjoying the television for many hours a night.

By Arthur