Colonial Courtship

In the colonial times, many regions in the United States had different practices when it came to courtship. Some areas considered marriage a sacred union, whereas others looked at it as a civil contract. In some communities, marriage between a couple was based on the linking of properties rather than love. Although there were many differences between each area, there seemed to be one universal concept of community involvement when it came to courtships, something that is not prevalent in our age.

The Frontier people, who lived in the more western regions where it was less civilized, based their marriages on an old ritual of "abducting the bride". The groom and his friends would come in and "steal" the bride, often with her consent. Their weddings were fun and crazy events. Puritans saw marriage as a civil contract. Adults strictly watched over the courtships. Before a couple was allowed to marry, Puritan leaders had to approve of the union. If it was passed, a very simple and quiet ceremony would proceed. Puritans were the only group that allowed divorce. In Virginia marriage was considered a sacred union, with a large emphasis on the joining of properties and money. Families were heavily involved. Quakers needed the consent of the entire community in order to get married, and were required to go through a 16-step courtship phase. Lastly, in the south, African slaves married in a "jumping the broom" ceremony, in which the community participated and attended.

-- Kelsey

The Jeffersonian Era

In 1800, Republican Thomas Jefferson ran against President John Adams, who was a Federalist. Although Jefferson won by eight electoral votes, his running mate, Aaron Burr, also received the same number of electoral votes, and the House of Representatives was called upon to break the tie. In the midst of the recasting all the ballots, Alexander Hamilton convinced some of the Federalists to cast blank votes because he believed Aaron Burr was unqualified to become president. This meant Aaron Burr didn't receive votes that he would have otherwise gotten and as a result, Jefferson won by two votes and became president, while Aaron Burr became vice-president. In order to avoid this kind of deadlock in the future, Congress passed the Twelfth Amendment, requiring electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice-president.

At the very beginning of Jefferson's presidency, a new law regarding the Supreme Court was established. At the very end of his presidency, John Adams had tried to appoint numerous federalists to the supreme court. However, William Marbury's commision was never delivered because Jefferson's secretary of state, James Madison, refused to deliver it. Marbury brought the case to the Supreme Court, claiming that Madison should be ordered to deliver his commission based on the Judiciary Act of 1789. The Supreme Court ruled against Marbury though, declaring that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. This established the law of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the right to declare a law passed by Congress unconstitutional.

When Jefferson became president, he began using his presidential power to modify the government based on his belief that people should have more control over the government, and that the government should be reduced and simplified (known as Jeffersonian republicanism). Jefferson lowered government expenses by first cutting back on the military, and eliminating internal taxes. In addition, Jefferson instigated the Louisiana Purchase by buying North American land from Napoleon, who offered to sell the land because he needed money. After this transaction in 1803, the United States doubled in size.

Written by: Derek O'Connor

Women and Power Through the Years

By Liane

From the very beginning of US History until present day, women have been fighting for equal rights as well as contributing greatly to our country. In the 1770s, before the American Revolution, women helped challenge British power. The average woman would make a stand by boycotting British goods, such as tea and clothes made in Britain. There were even women who stood out publicly. Such was Mary Goddard, who first printed copies of the Declaration of Independence including signatures.

In time, women began to grow increasingly incensed at the absence of women's suffrage. That is to say, women did not have the right to vote. The first women's suffrage movement was in 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. It was brought about by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. In this convention, Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments, featuring the call for greater women rights, especially suffrage for women.


Scene from Marry Poppins in which Mrs. Banks
sing of "Votes for Women", in reference to the
movement for women's suffrage


1913 Suffrage March, New York City

In 1920, more 50 years after the start of the women's suffrage movement, women finally gained the right to vote. The 19th Amendment was added to the Constitution, giving women the right that was so sought-after. However, this by no means granted women equality. From 1972 to 1982, women gradually began to work, instead of staying at home cooking, cleaning, and taking care of the children. But women were not paid equal salaries as men. The need for another amendment arose, and as such the Equal Rights Amendment was proposed. This would have given women the same social and economic rights as men, had it passed. Unfortunately, although millions defended it, the ERA was feared to bring about unwanted change. Because of this, the Equal Rights Amendment failed to be ratified for the Constitution.

Nevertheless, women have gained more and more equality every year. Taking a look at our society now, we see that women and men truly are more or less equal. Both men and women serve in Congress and the Senate, and women hold important positions socially and politically. Throughout the years, women have fought for, and eventually gained political power.

Women and Political Power

Women and Political Power

A common theme in world history has been putting women aside and having the men make all the decisions. Women were fighting for the rights that all men are born with. Society was in need for a serious change and everybody knew it.

In the 1770’s, women began protesting against the British by boycotting tea and British-made clothing. Sarah Morris Mifflin was shown in a painting spinning her own thread for knitting instead of using British thread. Small things like this started getting peoples attention.

In 1848, women became aware of their unequal status in society. Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott launched the first women’s suffrage movement in the U.S at the Seneca Falls convention in Seneca Falls New York. They mainly addressed how they wanted greater rights for women, especially the right to vote.

Women finally achieved the right to vote in 1920 by the nineteenth amendment. It took 72 years for men in society to finally understand where women were coming from. This was simply far too long.

In 1972-1982, women started entering the workplace and noticed that they were being treated unfairly. They were not being paid as much as men or treated as fairly. The Equal rights amendment passed and women hoped to obtain as equal rights as men. The ERA failed to be ratified for the constitution.

By 2001, 60 women served in the House and 13 served in the Senate. The rights of women have changed a lot over the centuries, but now its safe to say that we are really making improvements and hopefully we will have equality for men and women.

By: Victor

The Road to Revolution

     

The Battle of Bunker Hill Oliver Branch Petition

Under the harsh rule of the British, colonists in America decided to express their discontent at the First Continental Congress by fighting against their mother country.  The colonists raised troops with soldiers called minutemen and stockpiled weapons.  When Britain heard about these events, British General Thomas Gage decided to seize illegal weapons in Concord, Massachusetts in the spring of 1775.  Some colonists like Paul Revere warned the arrival of the king’s troops by using subtle signals such as church bells.

            The first battle of Revolutionary War finally broke out after 70 minutemen refused king’s troop’s demand to lay down their arms and ran away, which resulted in eight minutemen killed.  However, the British soldiers did not realize that thousands of minutemen were waiting for them in Concord where they were returning to Boston.  The minutemen successfully killed some British soldiers and the British soldiers retreated with humiliation. 

            After the incident in Concord, colonial leaders argued among themselves at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia over the actions they would take.  Some advocated for complete independence from Britain; while others wanted to recover the broken relationship.  In the end, they decided to appoint George Washington as the commander of the newly recognized Continental Army, which was formerly the colonial militia. 

            On June, 1775, British general Thomas Gage led a group of 2,400 men to Breed’s Hill, which was near Bunker Hill, to attack the militiamen.  The militiamen on the hill fought at the last minute against the soldiers and finally retreated.  In the Battle of Bunker Hill, 450 militiamen had died and Britain had 1,000 casualties.  Although the colonies were preparing for a potential war, many delegates at the Second Continental Congress were loyalists to their mother country who hoped for peace.  They sent an Olive Branch Petition in July to ask for the revival of past harmony between the colonies and Britain.  However, a Revolution War was inevitable when George III rejected the petition and issued a proclamation to urge the Parliament to blockade the American coast reasoning that the colonies were in a state of rebellion.

Written by Alvin

A Difficult Time

The Civil War transformed the lives of thousands of Americans, bringing many great hardships and casualties during the war. As the fighting intensified, conscription was introduced on both sides, requiring a draft that forced men to serve in the army. Although African Americans only encompassed 1% of the North’s population, about 180,000 African Americans fought for the Union, composing 10% of the Union Army. Horrible conditions and poor medical care led to heavy fatalities on both sides, with dysentery, body lice and diarrhea common. Conditions in the war prisons however were even worse, where disease ran rampant with overcrowding. The North was only slightly better, with an increased amount of food and space for prisoners. An estimated 15% of Union prisoners in South died in contrast to 12% of Confederate prisoners in the North died.

Thousands of women also contributed to the war effort, and many worked as army nurses. Clara Barton, a dedicated Union army nurse, treated soldiers at the front line and went on to found the American Red Cross after the war. Both sides benefited greatly because of the nursing effort by the women, and they became an invaluable resource as casualties skyrocketed.

Overall, the war obliterated the South’s economy and the Confederacy soon faced a food shortage, due to loss of manpower and Union control of food-growing areas. This led to food prices escalating sharply and the inflation rate rising 7,000%, greatly damaging the economy. The North’s economy on the other hand expanded with the war, as army supplies sustained woolen mills, steel foundries and other industries. This growing economy led to the first income tax by Congress, in an effort to help pay for the war.

By Matt M, Kiki G

Manifest Destiny - Journey to the West

During the early 1800s, many presidents bought land in the West to expand the nation's territory, such as the Louisiana Purchase, by Thomas Jefferson. Many Americans started moving West as a sign from God. Most of the Americans that moved to the West was because of the economic issues back in the East. American traders went to the Santa Fe Trail to gain a profit because of its economic advantage. Others took the Oregon Trail to fulfill their "destiny" in wooden-wheeled wagons while others pushed handcarts loaded with private possessions.

Mormons migrated to the west to escape prosecution from the government. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 settled disputes between the areas near the Canadian border, Maine and Minnesota. The border in the south was not so peaceful, as the Anglos fought the Tejanos, and intesified cultural issues. Texans declared independence from Mexico and ratified a constitution similar to the United States. The Treaty of Velasco, was signed by Santa Anna, which gave Texas its independence. President James K. Polk wanted to also claim California and New Mexico and negotiated secretly, but Mexico did not accept. President Polk called for war against Mexico and won California and New Mexico.