The WAr in the Pacific

Following Pearl Harbor, the Japanese set up an empire that stretched from mainland China to deep in the Pacific Ocean. When the Japaneses invaded the Philippines in 1941, General Douglas MacArthur was in command of 80,000 Allied troops battling the Japanese for control of the islands. The Allied forces were soon overrun however and had to retreat, but not without Gen. MacArthur pledging to return. It took until spring 1942 for the Allies to finally turn the tide against the Japanese, and they succeeded in stopping the Japanese drive to Australia in the five day Battle of the Coral Sea. The fighting in the battle was done exclusively by airplanes that took off from enormous carriers, and not a single shot was fired by the surface ships. It was the first time a Japanese invasion had been stopped and turned back however since Pearl Harbor.
The Japanese's next move was toward Midway, a strategic island northwest of Hawaii. American codebreakers had already cracked the Japanese code however and were prepared for the attack, Admiral Chester Nimitz led his forces to defend the island. On June 3rd, 1942, Allied scouts found the Japanese fleet with their planes still on the decks of their carriers and sent torpedo planes and dive bombers to attack. The result was devastating and in the words of a Japanese offical, the Americans had "avenged Pearl Harbor." The Battle of Midway proved to be a turning point the in Pacific War, and soon Allies began island hopping and regaining each territory lost to the Japanese.
In the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the Japanese sent their entire fleet into battle and also tested a new tactic, the kamikaze or suicide-plane. 424 Kamikaze pilots set off on suicide missions in the Philippines, sinking 16 ships and damaging 80 more. Despite this damage the battle was diasterous for Japan, losing almost its entire Imperial Navy ( 3 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 13 cruisers and 500 planes.) After retaking much of the PhilippineProxy-Connection: keep-alive
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2C the Allies set off towards Iwo Jima, a critical strategic outpost guarded by more than 20,700 Japanese troops. 6,000 Marines died taking the little island, the greatest number lost in the Pacific to that point, while only 200 Japanese survived. Only one island now stood in between the Allies and a final assault on the Japanese mainland, the island of Okinawa. In April 1945, U.S. Marines invaded the island, while the Japanese fired more than 1,900 kamikaze attacks, sinking 30 ships while damaging 300 more. By the end of the battle more than 7,600 Americans had died, but the Japanese paid a much worse price, losing more than 110,000. It was the last battle in the Pacific war due to the decision instead to drop the Atomic Bomb on Japan.

By Matt M and Paris

Liberty in 1955

The Civil Rights movement was from 1955 to 1968 where the U.S charged to outlaw racial discrimination against the African Americans. In this society rules were changed for public areas, and transportation but the right to vote was still restricted. African Americans felt that they didn’t receive that much. Soon Congress passed Johnson’s voting Rights of Act in 1965. In this act the literacy test was disqualified. Another movement during the Civil Rights Movement was in 1966. The Black Power Movement aimed to have freedom from oppression by white Americans. Organizations also took place for social equality like the NAACP, SNCC, CORE, and ,SCLC. These groups were called “Southern Freedom Movement. Issues like freedom, respect, dignity, and economic and social equality were worked on. These groups had some protests that were held by this crisis. Boycotts were held and a successful protest was the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955 to 1956. This broadened the protests which included “sit-ins” and marches. These protests were also popular because it was protesting in nonviolence.
The Civil Rights Act began when John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Then President Lyndon B. Johnson pledged to follow the footsteps of JFK. On July 2, 1964 Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This banned discrimination on race, religion, and gender. Mother acts that restored rights were the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, and Fair Housing Act of 1968. All of these acts banned discrimination on voting, immigrants, and rental of housing on people of color. African Americans soon got their freedom on the rights that they deserve in the Civil Rights Movement. This was the starting point of equality and the change in view points that many people had. It gave liberty to many African Americans.

Mother's Day

Need an Academic Gift Certificate? Here is an easy way to earn one and do someone nice for that special woman in your life. For Mother's Day, write your mom, aunt, or grandma a poem. How about fixing breakfast for her? Burn her a CD full of her kind of music. You don't need to spend any money. Be creative! Ask your mom to send me an email message to tell me what you did for her on Mother's Day. Send the email to msanderson@pausd.org.

Eisenhower's Presidency

As Truman’s approval rating sank lower and lower toward the end of his presidency, the Republican and Democratic parties sought a new candidate to run in the 1952 election. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, a WWII General who had become the Supreme Commander of NATO, was a prospective candidate for both parties. Although initially reluctant to pursue the presidency, Eisenhower eventually favored the Republican Party, since he believed the Democrats were placing too much emphasis on a centralized government. Eisenhower ran with Nixon as his vice-president, and won the popular vote.

As Coldwar tensions increased, Eisenhower’s foreign policy continued to put pressure on the Soviet Union. John Foster Dulles, Eisenhower’s secretary of state, developed a policy of brinkmanship – threatening to use nuclear force against the Soviet Union and any other aggressor nations who continued to spread communism. In addition, Eisenhower also began using the CIA to carry out covert operations against the Soviet Union, such as helping the pro-American Shah of Iran return to power, and toppling the suspected communist government of Guatemala. In 1957, Eisenhower issued the Eisenhower Doctrine, stating that the United States would defend the Middle East against attack from the Soviet Union. This was intended to counter the Soviet Union’s influence in the Middle East, since they had defended Egypt during the Suez War, and had gained popularity with Middle Eastern countries.

In spite of this, after Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, the new leader of the Soviet Union, favored a more peaceful policy where the United States and Soviet Union remained on generally fair terms with each other. Still, since 1955, the CIA had been spying by sending flights over Soviet territory, and the U-2 plane was used during these missions. By 1960, although Eisenhower wanted these flights discontinued, one last flight took place on May 1, the plane was shot down, and pilot Francis Powers was captured. When confronted by Khrushchev, Eisenhower denied the U-2 had been spying, but eventually he was forced to admit it. However, Eisenhower refused to apologize, and Khruschev called off a summit that would have been held between the United States and the Soviet Union, souring relations between the two powers.



written by: Derek O'Connor

McCarthyism

The communism influence of the Soviet Union caused Americans to believe that there are security concerns to their country. At the height of WWII, many Americans joined the communist party, in fact, 100,000 did and it caused people to fear that American loyalty was to the Soviet Union.
Everywhere in the country, communist influence in spreading and subtle propagandas is believed to be incorporated to that American society. In entertainment movies are believed to inclined communist ideals and many movie stars and directors are suspected to be parrot of the spreading infiltration. Many were turned down for jobs and even tried for nonexistent crimes because they were believe to be for the communism.
President Truman was against the McCarran internal security act which made it unlawful to plan any action that may lead to dictatorship. He said that “in a free country we punish men for the crimes they commit but never for the opinions the have.” However congress passed the law over Truman’s veto.
On the other hand Senator Joseph McCarthy took advantage of the growing concern over communism and he started to make unsupported accusations about communism. The attacks on suspected communists gained the name McCarthyism in the 1950’s. The questions of loyalty were more targeted and he even went as fast as accusing the state department saying he has 67, 81 and 205 names of the communists in the state department.
Even though they knew of the unlawful actins of McCarthy republican did little to stop him. This made sure that the public saw them purging the nation of communists.
McCarthy gained public support for bullying witnesses and even accused the US Army for being communists.
The senate finally stops him by saying that he has “brought the senate into dishonor and disrepute.”
Some of the causes that happened due to McCarthyism was the Soviets developed the atomic bomb much quicker than expected. Also the soviets successfully establish communist regimes in Eastern Europe after World War II. In addition the Korean War ends in a stalemate and the Republicans gain politically by accusing Truman and Democrats of being soft on communism.
Effects to these causes were that millions of Americans were forced to take loyalty oaths and undergo loyalty investigations. Also activism by labor unions goes into decline. Lastly many people were afraid to speak out on public issues and Anti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policy.

An Unfair Relocation

When World War II came about, it brought tragic results for the Japanese-Americans. At the time, there were approximately 120,000 Japanese-Americans living in the US, mostly concentrated on the West Coast. The attack on Pearl Harbor stunned the US, and the Americans believed that the Japanese would strike again. Shortly thereafter, rumors of sabotage surfaced concerning the Japanese and how they were supposedly poisoning vegetables. Feelings of prejudice swept the nation until, in 1942, the War Department called for the evacuation of all the Japanese-Americans. The internment, or confinement, of 110 thousand Japanese-Americans soon followed and they were shipped to 10 hastily-made relocation centers in California, Washington, Oregon, and Arizona. 1,444 Hawiian Japanese were sent to camps, approximately 1% of the Japanese population in Hawaii. Two thirds of the people that had been relocated were Nisei, or people who were born in the United States but their parents had immigrated from Japan. Thousands of Nisei were already in the army.

The Japanese-Americans were relocated even though there were no charges against them, no evidence of wrong-doing, and people were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and belongings for less than they were worth. In the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the relocation was justified. "Military necessity" was the reasoning behind the declaration. After the war ended, the Japanese-American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government to compensate for lost property. In 1965, Congress gave $38 million to Japanese who had been interned. However, that was less than 10 percent of the actual loss that they suffered. The JACL didn't give up. In 1978, they called for reparations for each individual who was affected by the relocation. It wouldn't be until a decade later that President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that granted 20 thousand dollars to each Japanese-American who was sent to an internment camp. These checks were sent out in 1990 along with a letter of apology from President George Bush. The United States had finally recognized their wrongdoings and had apologized for them.

By Becky and Liane

The Kennedy Administration

John F. Kennedy won the 1960’s presidential election against the republican vice president Richard M. Nixon. During this election, the first ever television debate was held. This opened the world to television-influenced campaigns. Kennedy’s appearance and great public speaking abilities won over the hearts of the television viewers, but Nixon’s expertise in foreign policy won over the radio audience. Ultimately Kennedy charisma won him the election in one of the closest votes since 1884.
Kennedy surrounded himself with the best and smartest administration, as well as some of the youngest minds ever to join the White House team. This inspired younger generations to become more proactive in the political era. He hired Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor Company, to be his secretary of defense and McGeorge Bundy, a Harvard University dean, as his national security advisor. Although Kennedy hired many successful men for his team, his most trusted advisor was his brother Robert Kennedy, whom he appointed his attorney general.
Family played a crucial role in his administration. His family life made it to the public and won over the people. Jacqueline Kennedy influenced women as a fashion and mother icon. His children Caroline and John shed light on the fact that the president was a father to two young children.
Kennedy believed in a flexible response policy in order to avoid a major conflict with nuclear equipped countries. He boosted military spending to form the Special Forces (the Green Berets) to strengthen non-nuclear artillery.
The most important set of changes came in the New Frontier, bringing his goal to explore the uncharted areas in science and space. He began the Space Race in order to get an American to the moon, by boosting research with NASA. He addressed economic issues with poverty and reached out to foreign countries founding the Peace Corps and Alliance for Progress.
Unfortunately, before many of his plans could be fully carried out, he was assassinated. On November 22, 1963, while traveling through Dallas, TX, John F. Kennedy was shot in the head. This ended his reign in the White House, leaving many Americans devastated and in desperate need of a new leader.

By: Noel and Liz

Rise and Fall of McCarthy

Fear of communism began in the 1947’s, when communists took over in China. America started to discriminate against people who seemed to be communist. America’s fear grew in 1949, when the Soviets exploded the atomic bomb.

When Joseph McCarthy, republican senator from Wisconsin, saw how America was scared of communism, he took advantage of it. He had been ineffective in the Senate and he realized he needed to get an edge to be reelected in 1952. He used America’s fear of communism as the driving factor in his campaign. McCarthy would accuse people of following communist ways without evidence. This accusation became known as McCarthyism. He did so in the Senate because there, he had legal immunity that protected him from being sued. He accused 205 people of being communist in the State Department and accused the Democratic Party “20 years of treason” for allowing communists into the government. His drive for his campaign worked for a while but eventually, it also led to his downfall. In 1954, McCarthy accused the US army of following communist means. This accusation was televised nationally. He went too far as to bully the witnesses and he was condemned from the Senate of bringing dishonor. Joseph McCarthy would 3 years later, die of alcoholism.

The best and the brightest

The Kennedy Administration was known as “the best and the brightest”. Among Kennedy’s administration was his brother, Robert Kennedy who He appointed Attorney General. Kennedy’s administration was faced with issues at the beginning of office, such as the cold war and the civil rights movement. To combat the cold war Kennedy’s administration developed a policy of flexible response, where they spent more money on conventional military forces, and spent less on nuclear ones. One of Kennedy’s most risky political decisions, taking blame for the Bay of Pigs invasion became one of his most trusting and reassuring actions the American People. Kennedy’s administration inspired many Americans, showing them that anyone no matter how young can succeed, because of his young and inexperienced administration. Among the issues his administration faced the Berlin crisis was the most stressful, being on the brink of nuclear war. Another one of the greatest accomplishments of the Kennedy administration include the space program, where Kennedy pushed for people to aspire to the new frontier. As well as foreign affairs Kennedy’s administration improved domestic problems such as coming out of a recession, and improving unemployment relief. Lastly, Kennedy’s administration started to improve civil rights and cut taxes by 10 billion dollars.

The Civil Rights Movement

The events of World War II largely set the platform for the Civil Rights movement. Demands for soldiers to fight opened up job opportunities at home, and nearly a million African Americans served in the armed forces. This demand for soldiers forced the army to end previous discriminatory policies that kept African Americans from serving in fighting units, and the returning soldiers were determined to fight for their own freedom after defeating facist regimes across the globe. The legal battles of the desegregation campaign were led by the NAACP, which in turn was led by lawyer Thurgood Marshall. In 1938 he structured a team of his best law students and his team won 29 out of 32 cases they argued in front of the Supreme Court. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a milestone win, ending with the Supreme Court striking down segregation in schools as an unconstitutional violation of the 14^th Amendment.

Eighteen months later, in December 1955, Rosa Parks, a NAACP officer, stood up for herself by refusing to give up her seat on a bus which ended with her getting arrested. In response, leaders of the African American community formed a Montgomery bus boycott, and elected the 26 year old Martin Luther King to lead the campaign. King called his brand of non-violent resistance “soul force” and based it on the teachings of Philip Randolph, Henry David Thoreau, Ghandi and Jesus.

After the Montgomery bus boycott success, King founded the South Christian Leadership Conference to carry out non-violent crusades against injustice. They staged protests and demonstrations through out the South, and more committees formed on their own. These included Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). These committees organized the first sit-ins, and through their efforts the dream of racial equality was finally becoming a reality.

By Matt M. and Paris B.

Kennedy's Administration

The Kennedy Administration marked a new era at the White House with its energy and charisma.  Kennedy placed young and bright individuals to his advisory board including McGeorge Bundy as national security adviser, Robert McNamara as secretary of defense, Dean Rusk as secretary of state, and Robert Kennedy as attorney general.

His administration had focused on the Cold War and used flexible response in replacement of policy of massive retaliation as America’s policy towards the Soviet Union.  Then, he increased defense spending on military forces besides nuclear forces such as assembling an elite army called Special Forces. 

One of the most significant tests he encountered was America’s relation with Cuba.  Kennedy hesitantly decided to invade Cuba after deciding to overthrow Castro.  He and army officers ordered a group of Cuban exiles to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961 but the result was disastrous.  Castro’s troops with Soviet tanks and jet aircrafts defeated the Cuban exiles and captured them as prisoners, which damaged Kennedy’s administration.  Another incident that led to the brink of war with Soviet Union was the Cuban Missile Crisis where Kennedy informed the public about Soviet missiles in Cuba.  Fortunately, Kruschev agreed to remove the missiles in return for American pledge not to invade Cuba and demanded US secretly to remove missiles from Turkey.  Krushchev and Kennedy later set up a hot line between White House and Kremlin and agreed to sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty in order to ease the tensions of Cold War.

Domestically, Kennedy promised the nation to explore the New Frontier that included advancement in science, civil rights movement, and declination of the poverty rate.  However, Congress did not pass many of his proposals such as funding aids in education due to his lack of popular mandate.  However, he stimulated the economy by increasing government spending and lowering taxes, and created Peace Corps to give assistance to Asia, Africa, and Latin America.  In the science field, Kennedy funded NASA to prepare for a mission to the moon in order to surpass Soviet Union’s space race. 

Unfortunately, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963 after having been waving to a crowd in a car.  The nation was in grief and suspected Oswald assassinated Kennedy but conspiracy theories rose.  The Warren Commision in 1963 concluded that Oswald had shot the president but declared years later that Oswald was part of the conspiracy.

by Alvin 

Civil Rights movement in the 20th Century

In the early 20th century, there were a lot of changes in society marked by the Supreme Court's ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson. This landmark case enraged many of the African Americans who believed that "separate but equal" was not demolishing segregation, but rather enforcing it in the public. The NAACP ( National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed in 1909 by a number of African Americans with the support of prominent white reformers. In 1938, NAACP's leader, Thurgood Marshall, was placed as a law student to win 29 out of 32 before the Supreme Court. In the landmark case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,the father of Linda Brown had brought on a case to the Board of Education of Topeka. In the next few years, the case was proved to be unconstitutional, which allowed black students to enroll in white schools. The governor of Arkansas ignored the case, which then enraged the black community. Presdient Eisenhower called in the National Guard to go into a high school in Little Rock to protect 9 students, who are known as the Little Rock Nine. Many white parents and students were enraged with the decision, which caused an outbreak of anger towards the students. Many activists made their moves with the initiation of Rosa Park's refusal to give up her seat to a white man on the bus. This enraged the black community, which then caused a boycott on buses, which led to more than a year of no riding on public buses. Many of the activities were then brought out by profound leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, who supported the civil rights movement. King believed that their movement should be in peace rather than violence, while Malcolm X believed in building power physically.

-By Arthur C.

Civil Rights Movement: Malcolm X

Malcolm X

Malcolm X was very controversial. Those who were against him felt that he taught black supremacy, racism, and anti-semitism, while supporters viewed him as one of the most influencial African Americans fighting racism in a "White America." Indeed his ideas were radical; however, he fought for African American's rights in one of the harshest times for a black person living in America (besides slavery).

Malcolm X said, "It is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks. It is legal and lawful to own a shotgun or a rifle. We believe in obeying the the law.... The time has come for the American Negro to first fight back in self-defense whenever and wherever he is being unjustly and unlawfully attacked."

When Malcolm was young, he was alienated by the white society he lived in. His father was killed by white racists and his mother left him and his siblings because of an emotional collapse. Malcolm later went to jail for burglary and in jail is where he would join the Nation of Islam.

Malcolm X became widely known because his controversial stories and lessons gave the media a lot to write about. The main controversy was Malcolm X's call for armed self defense, which frightened many white people and moderate African Americans. After a disagreement in strategy between Elijiah Muhammad and Malcolm, Malcolm decided to start his own black muslim group. Like every orthodox Muslim, Malcolm made his trip to Mecca. On this trip, he learned that Islam preaches racial equality. When he came back, he had a new slogan "Ballots or Bullets." He said, "Well, if you and I don't use the ballot, we're going to be forced to use tge bullet. So let us try the ballot."

Malcolm X was shot while giving a speech in Harlem NY on February 21st, 1965. His legacy and influence still exists today.

Connor R

Course Notebooks due April 23

Just a reminder: Course notebooks are due on Friday - April 23. Look over your copy of the third quarter TOC. Compare it with the materials in your notebook. Good luck!

Spring Semester Project: Create a Web Site

Have you joined a group? Has the group selected a decade yet? Has your group decided on the four topics? If you like the cultural elements of the 1950's, select movies or movie stars like James Dean or Marilyn Monroe. What about 1960's politics? Think about the Bay of Pigs or Cuban Missile Crisis. If sports interest you, focus on one sport and one team like the UCLA Men's basketball team. Music? Think the 1970's and the Jackson Five.

The Kennedy Administration

Democratic Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy was elected the 35th president in Nov. 1960, replacing President Eisenhower. His charismatic personality in public, as well as his promise to "get America moving again", helped him gain the edge over his Republican opponent Richard Nixon. Kennedy concentrated strongly on military policies intended to improve upon those of the Eisenhower Administration.

After being sworn into office in Jan. 1961, Kennedy put more effort into competing with the Soviet Union’s military program, as the Soviets were gaining support in less developed countries, as well as in nearby Cuba. The increased funding for nonnuclear forces enabled the United States to indirectly fight smaller wars against the Soviet Union’s imperialism while avoiding an all-out nuclear war.

However, one of Kennedy’s critical errors was approving the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, originally conceptualized by the Eisenhower administration. This plan was intended to overthrow Castro, the new communist revolutionary leader of Cuba, with a small force of Cuban exiles and United States soldiers. When the American forces invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961, the Cuban troops backed by Soviet forces were more than a match for the American troops, and most of the invading exiles were imprisoned or killed. Following this disaster, Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the American prisoners, and Castro was able to openly accept Soviet aid without fear of retaliation from the United States.

In addition, Kennedy passed many policies based on his idea of progress called the New Frontier. For the economy, Kennedy had to deal with the recession in America, as well as the high unemployment. Therefore, Kennedy proposed a policy of deficit spending, meaning the United States Government would spend more money than it received. This opened up more jobs and stimulated the economy, reversing the stagnant economy from the Eisenhower era.

As for social issues such as poverty, Kennedy created the Peace Corps - a program of volunteers that helped people in developing nations like Asia, Africa, and Latin America. At home, although Kennedy was sympathetic towards civil rights activists like Martin Luther King, he was reluctant to actively pursue civil rights since he thought this would anger the white Southern congressmen who decided whether his bills got passed. However, Kennedy did overturn selective immigration, which at the time, were mainly European immigrants. He expanded the immigration to Asia and Latin America, placing emphasis on family reunion instead of race.

Although Kennedy's presidency was cut short by his asassination on Nov. 22, 1963, his administration greatly impacted the military, economic, and social policies of America.

Written by: Derek O'Connor

The New Frontier--Space

On April 12th, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first human to visit "the new frontier," or Outer Space. The U.S.A's president at the time, John F. Kennedy, saw this as a challenge between the two super-powers and pledged to surpass it. Less than a month later, American astronaut Alan Shepard climbed into Freedom 7, a small capsule on top of a huge rocket, and blasted into space and back, reassuring the nation of its ingenuity. Later that year, America launched its own communications satellite, Telstar, to send live television pictures across the Atlantic. America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was also constructing new launch facilities in Cape Canaveral, Florida and a mission control center in Houston, Texas. The Space Race with the Soviets had begun. Addressing a crowd in Houston on September 12th, 1962, President Kennedy expressed his spirit and excitement for the space race by promising a man on the moon later that decade. Seven years later, on July 20th, 1969, the nation watched breathlessly as astronaut Neil Armstrong took the first steps on the moon to achieve this magnificent goal.

The Space program stimulated America in ways never expected, as the huge federal funding for research and development led to new industries and technologies, some of which were used in business and industry, and also consumer goods.

By Matt, Paris

Vietnam War

The United States believed they would easily conquer the Vietcong due to their superior military technology, although the jungle terrain and the guerilla warfare tactics were misleading for American troops. U.S. troops had difficulty fighting because they couldn't tell who their enemies were. The Vietcong had intricate tunnel systems from which they would attack from and then retreat. These tunnels connected underneath villages, allowing the Vietcong access into secure areas. The Vietcong also had booby traps that scared U.S. troops because of their brutality. To counteract the Vietcong’s traps, the U.S. used napalm and Agent Orange to eliminate the home terrain advantage. U.S. soldiers used the cause of combating communism as a way to believe in fighting the war. The Nations Selective Service System was enabled during the Vietnam War. Some men that were drafted could bribe doctors or find other ways of becoming exempt from the draft. Women were not allowed to serve in combat, although over 10000 served as nurses during the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War started a free speech and protest movement, arguing against war.

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks, a secretary of the NAACP, was remembered by her courage to refuse to give up her seat to a white man on bus in Montgomery that eventually changed the American society towards the attitude of segregation. Before the arrest of Rosa Parks on the Montgomery bus, she had protested against segregation before. For example, she chose to climb stairs when buildings had segregated elevators.

On December 1, 1955, she sat on the front row seat of the “colored” section of a Montgomery bus. After having decided that she needed to protest against segregation, she refused to give up her seat as the bus driver demanded in order to allow a white man to sit down without African Americans. Parks allowed the bus driver to call the police and she was arrested. After the news of her arrest spread, the NAACP leader E. D. Nixon and Jo Ann Robinson suggested a bus boycott with the support of African-American community. As a result , the Montgomery Improvement Association was formed to boycott riding on Montgomery bus. It was led by Martin Luther King Jr. and lasted for 381 days. Finally, Rosa Parks’ incident led to the Supreme Court to outlaw bus segregation. Rosa Parks’ actions had changed the American society.

By Alvin

Culture in the 1950's

In the 1950s, there was a great change in American culture, in popular media, such as books, music, and in formats that news were broadcast. There were a lot of changes in books, with authors like Isaac Asimov, with his science fiction book, I, Robot, which led to the possibility of living in space. In other books, authors started writing about how people could begin to choose their own futures and not be limited by their past generations. The idea spread about the conformity of society and people began emerging from their past destinies into a life where they could change their own paths to succeed.

In the music industry, there were many legends that began their careers, such as Frank Sinatra, and Elvis Presley. During the 1950s, the United States was raging about the newest type of music, "rock and roll" which was developed by Southern blues and gospel music with a strong beat. Elvis Presley emerged from the era as one of the most famous artist in the United States and is still remembered today. He brought the African American voice through his music and was greatly praised because the parents did not want their kids listening to "the devil's music". Frank Sinatra had also made a great appearance to the media as a crooner, a type of music that sings popular ballads.

In the news media, many broadcasting companies transferred from their radio stations into television stations. Television sets became popular in the 1950s with rising populations watching it. Many shows like, I Love Lucy, Lassie, Father Knows Best, and other comedies. Many variety shows, such as The Edward Sullivan Show and Disneyland, were very popular for the whole family to enjoy. The television sets changed the ways that American's hours at home, with more hours spent at home more than before, enjoying the television for many hours a night.

By Arthur

Rosa Parks

"I would like to be remembered as a person who wanted to be free... so other people would be also free." - Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks is a very important person in our history. Some say she started the civil rights movement on December 1, 1955. On that day, Rosa refused to give up her seat, on the bus, to a white person. She was then convicted by Montgomery, Alabama ordinance.
Even though Rosa was not the first one to refuse to give up her seat on the bus, she was a part of the NAACP. This greatly helped the situation because she was able to make moves that others weren't able to make. Her arrest caused the formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association led by Martin Luther King. This group called for a boycott of city-owned buses. For 382 days since December 5, 1955, African American residents of Montgomery would refuse to take the bus to their destination. The white community would respond with harrassment and terrorism. On November 13, 1956, the United States Supreme Court would end this boycott by making it illegal to have segregation on buses. Rosa received 43 honorable awards and was voted one out of 100 most influential people in Time magazine for her act of defiance.

The Space Program: The "Space Race"

During the late fifties, the Soviet Union and the United States battled over who could be the first to send something up into space. October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union won this race when they launched Sputnik, a satellite that circled the globe. It traveled 18,000 miles per hour. It completed a rotation around the Earth within only 96 minutes! Immediately after this shocking event, the United States poured their efforts into making their own satellite. Their first attempt failed when the rocket toppled onto the ground. Finally on January 31, 1958 the first American satellite was launched.
Both the United States and the Soviet Union felt a need to push their space program in order to go above and beyond each other. The Soviet Union was the first to send a man into space, which was a risky decision. On April 12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin was the first to travel into space, surpassing the American’s for the second time in this “space race”.
The United States government wanted to out shine the Soviet Union, but simply sending a man into space was not going to do it. One month after Gagarin was launched, an American astronaut followed suit. Meanwhile, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was developing a way to send a man to a moon. They set up testing launch sites to develop their plans further.
Finally, after working diligently for seven years, the U.S. was able to beat the Soviet Union for the first time. On July 20, 1969 Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon. Thousands of American citizens learned of this through television sets that broadcasted it. Kennedy was thrilled to have been a part of this event, which became the biggest bookmark in American history.
With this final feat, the Soviet Union was unable to compete with America’s latest achievement. This concluded the infamous “space race”. As a result of the countless months spent on developing new technologies, space and defense related industries expanded and the federal government provided funding for more research.

By: Liz and Noel

Japanese Concentration Camps

Japanese Concentration Camps

During WWII, Roosevelt signed the executive order that rounded up Americans of Japanese heritage. Roosevelt's executive order was fueled by anti-Japanese sentiment among farmers who competed against Japanese labor, politicians who sided with anti-Japanese constituencies, and the general public, whose frenzy was heightened by the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor. More than 2/3 of the Japanese who were interned in the spring of 1942 were citizens of the United States.

The conditions of the camp were overcrowded and also poor living conditions, according the report by the War Relocation Authority, was that the J.A were housed in tarpaper-covered barracks with out and cooking or plumbing facilities at all. Food was rationed at the cost of 48 cents, leadership in the camps were given to Nisei who were the younger American born Japanese, while the older generation which was called Issei did not gain positions while the government ignored them, yet people were allowed to leave the camps only if the enlisted in the U.S army.

The legal issues that were brought upon the us were only concerning the interment in the camps by the defendants arguing that their 5th amendment right was being violated because of their heritage but although they fought hard, the supreme court ruled in favor of the U.S Gov. By the end of 1944, a few years after signing the Executive order 9066 Roosevelt took away the order and closed the camps and the last camp was closed at the end of 1945, many apologies were given.

Senator Joseph McCarthy

Senator Joseph McCarthy was an anti-Communist activist. Many people saw him as ineffective to the legislation. He then realized that being reelected is the answer to his conflict. His reelection came with a thought showing that Communism was taking over. He attacked Communists with suspecting and accusing others. McCarthyism was this act in the early 1950s.

Many people didn’t like Senator Joseph McCarthy’s unfair method. He would suspect innocent people of being Communist without any evidence provided. It showed disloyalty and reason without a proper regard for evidence. McCarthyism also increased the fear in Communists toward the American institutions by the Soviet agents. Many Americans in WWII were accused of being Communist with aggressive investigations and they were continually questioned by the government as well as intruded on their private-industries. Committees and agents were even looked upon. The main targets of McCarthyism were government employees because they were in control of the entertainment industry, many leaders, educators, and union activists. The leadership roles were looked mostly attacked.

There was a large sum of imprisoned people that were victims of McCarthyism. 10,000, to 12,000 lost their jobs and were imprisoned because of this act, then were imprisoned were questioned by committees. Homosexuals were also targeted. This came to thousands of people without jobs and harassed by the acusations. The film industry were also attacked. Over 300 actors and directors were unemployed and denied work because an unofficial Hollywood blacklist.

In 1954, McCarthy mad accusations against the U.S Army which was his downfall. This was spread nationally on television about the Senate’s investigation. The public then saw McCarthy’s plan and attacks, which lost many of his votes. The Senate then condemned him for his unfair and improper actions. It brought dishonor and a bad reputation toward the Senate. A few years later Joseph McCarthy turned to alcoholism because of all of his conflict then he had died.

Space Exploration of the 60's

by: Micaela and Lainey

With the idea that whoever controls the space exploration controls the technological race as well, many countries tried to discover more ways to accomplish tasks of sending people to the outer space.

The most common misconception however, is that most people also believe that once you get to the moon, you can merely sent an missile down to destroy other nations. Science, in present day tells us otherwise, and in fact it is more effective to send a missile down from an airplane in the sky than from a shuttle in the moon.



The competition was mostly between the United States and the Soviet Union. Once the Soviets released the Sputnik 1, in October 4, 1957, Americans felt fear and threat. Given the first artificial satellite launched to orbit the earth, Soviets were impressed by their accomplishments. Americans believe that it will come easy to the Soviets to overtake the country once they make the launch successful because it will enable them to get a hold of more advance and dangerous weapons.



A month later, USSR launched their second satellite, Sputnik 2. This satellite contained the first living organism to ever travel outer space. A dog named Laika, was used to test if the shuttle conditions were appropriate and sufficient to support a man on space. When Laika came back with no psychological damages, they were confident enough to send a man in space.

As the US launched its first successful satellite, the Explorer 1, the government gave way to more studies done in the space exploration field. The Eisenhower administration passed the National Defense Educational Act. This act allowed the government to spend more $1 billion for a wide range of reforms. Such including new school construction, fellowships and loans to encourage promising students to seek higher education, new efforts in vocational education to meet critical manpower shortages in the defense industry, and a host of other programs (1959).

On the other hand, Pres. Kennedy (1962) decided to start a program developing the space race. The goal of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was to send the first man to walk the moon. However, they were not able to send a man outer space until four months after the launching of Sputnik 1.



On July 20, 1969, US achieved their goal, and astronaut Neil Armstrong took his first steps in the moon. With this accomplishment, universities started to expand their space programs. These space programs spent a huge federal funding for research, and development which also gave rise to new industries and new technologies for the country.

Once again, the United States accomplishing this task of sending a man on space opened more opportunities to explore the world beyond the planet. The space race was a good way of proving the country's self worth and allowed for development of better technologies for the future.

A Race of Lunar Proportions

The Cold War inspired many competitions between the United States and the Soviet Union. One of said competitions was the Space Race. The Americans believed they had the edge space-wise until the Soviets launched the first satellite, Sputnik 1, into space on October 4, 1957. This increased the worry that Soviets were advancing in technology more quickly than the United States. This fear was further increased when they launched yet another satellite, Sputnik 2, into space a month later. Americans realized they could not let themselves fall behind and so the National Committee of Aeronautics (NACA) launched the US satellite Explorer 1 a short four months afterward. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) would replace NACA when founded on July 29, 1958.

Sending technological equipment into space was one thing, but sending a human was another one entirely. The USSR was also the first to achieve this when cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin was sent into space on April 12, 1961. Once again, Americans feared that the Soviets were getting ahead of them. President Kennedy proclaimed that although the Soviets were the first to send a man into space, the United States would be the first to have a man walk on the moon. However, first an American man had to successfully be launched into space and on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard was the man to do so. It wouldn't be until eight years later that Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins would reach the moon. On July 20, 1969, people all over the nation were able to see Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the moon. America had achieved their goal.

-By Becky

Era of Violence: Assassinations

On November 22nd, 1963, the presidnential aircraft Air-Force One landed in Dallas TX. The president had come to mend political "fences" with the members of the States Democrats. The president and his wife sat in the back of an open air limousine. As the car approached the state building, he was shot in the head. He was raced to a nearby hospital where he died.

As news spread of his death, one question was on everyones mind, "who killed shot Kennedy and why?" During the next for days, Lyndon Johnson took the oath of office on Air-Force One. Television audiences witnessed Dallas Police charge Lee Harvey Oswald as the murderer, because his palm print had been found on the rifle used to kill Kennedy. In 1963, the Warren Commission investigated the weird events that took place and concluded that Oswald had shot the president. Later though, a reinvestigation in 1979 concluded that there was another shooter. There have also been other investigations which have resulted in a wide variety of conclusions. Some people believe that it may have been an inside job by the CIA. They believe this because after reading the Warren report and other testimonies, people found contradictions. Those who feel that the CIA tried to cover it up point to the contradictions and claim that the information is purposely misleading which would be evidence of a cover up. They do not believe that the details are correct, so they feel that there may be some sort of cover up. Others believed that there was a magic bullet, because the trajectory of the bullet is a phenomenom that still can't be explained today. One other theory suggests that this was a plot by anti-castro Cubans. Some also believe that this was fueled by the Cold War and was fueled by the Soviet Union. This has been debated for many years and has been the cause of many conspiracy theories.

The day after the Assassination, the whole nation got work off to mourn the death of the President. President Kennedy was beloved by most Americans. Still today, Kennedy's killer is still debated today.

Connor and Cody

The Race in Space

On July 20th, 1969, Niel Armstrong would take the first steps onto the moon. This was a monumental achievement, not only for the United States, but for humanity has a whole. Finally, we had reached our goal of interplanetary exploration, and although the moon is just one small step of many, it is a launching point for exploration in space.
These few steps on the moon were the result of more than seven years of diligent work. The whole situation began with the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin, the first human in space. For years, Soviet Russia had been working on sending a man into space, and finally achieved this goal on April 12, 1961. Frightened by the possibility of the Soviets gaining an edge on us, President Kennedy vowed that America would be the first country with a man on the moon. In less than a month, the US also had a man travel into space. Following the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the United States dedicated a lot of time and money in reaching its goal of having a man skip around on the moon. It would be more than seven years until this goal would be accomplished.
The impact of this historic event can still be felt today in our technology and in our schools. Most of our wireless technology stems from the use of satellites and super-orbital spacecraft, and there is endless possibility for technological and economic expansion among the stars. Also, following the massive federal funding for research and space development, many schools and universities expanded their science curriculum immensely. The steps of one man are followed by years of international cooperation, the growth of business and renewed excitement in the sciences in the schools of America.

-Holt Bowmer

women in wartime

After the attack of Pearl Harbor, many of the militaries’ ships and aircrafts were destroyed. But in order for the U.S. to have a fighting chance against Japanese they had to recreate the lost ships and aircrafts. This opened many jobs for the citizens. Soon after the military started drafting men, and even a sum of 5 million men volunteered. Because of the draft they was an extreme shortage of men left to work in the U.S. So the women had to step up and take their places.
As the government realized that they needed more people to work for the military, they had passed The Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps. This had allowed women to work for the military as long as they would not see the battlefield. In a short amount of time about 6 million women had joined the work force. By 1944, there were almost 18 million working for the war industries. Which was about three times as much there was in 1941. Because of this involvement with the military, women had felt more confident in them selves and in their country

By: Liz Talalai

Space Exploration

Tensions between the US and Soviet Union were high in the late 1950’s. Each nation was trying to better each other’s accomplishments in military and space technology. The Soviet Union launched the first earth-orbiting satellite, Sputnik I, on October 4, 1957, and this caused a crisis in the US. Previously, the US had believed they were the leaders in space exploration, but after the success of the Soviet’s Sputnik I, US citizens became fearful that the Soviet’s military technology was advancing past the US’. When the USSR launched Sputnik 2 a month later, this dealt another blow to the US citizens’ feelings of US superiority.

The US’ space program, the National Committee of Aeronautics (NACA), was quick to respond, and managed to launch a satellite called Explorer 1 into space four months later. This began the space exploration competition between the US and USSR. Soon after, President Eisenhower signed a bill creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on July 29, 1958, and this replaced the NACA. The US continued their internal progress by passing the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in Sep. 1958, which greatly increased funding for education, so there would be a new generation of engineers who could potentially work towards advancing the US’ space technology.
On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin of the USSR became the first man to go into space (in orbit around Earth). The US, not far behind, got Alan Shepard into space on May 5, 1961. However, the US was still displeased because they felt the world would perceive the US as lagging behind the Soviets. President Kennedy planned to get a man on the moon before the USSR, and thus, NASA embarked on the Apollo project, which involved sending probes and eventually people to the moon. On July 16, 1969, NASA launched Apollo 11, with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin on board – they became the first men to successfully complete the lunar mission. On July 20, 1969, the US made history by being the first nation to have astronauts touch down on the moon. From this point on, the “space race”, which started with the launching of Sputnik I, was considered to be at end, but this did not halt further advances in space technology to the present.



Written by: Derek O'Connor

1960's Space Exploration

• Russia had their foot ahead in the space race. On October 4, 1957, Russia was the first to launch Sputnik 1, a satelite, into space. Four months later, the US would launch Explorer 1 into space. Later,in April 12, 1961 Russia would send the first human into space. The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin landed on the moon. This influenced all of the companies and programs related to space. Because of this, the United States multiplied the Soviet feat in that year. The technology increased and there was more communications in satellite, the Telster, depended on the technology. Television pictures were needed across the Atlantic Ocean. Some creators of these machines were the America’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA. NASA was established in 1958It created more facilities around Cape Canaveral, Florida, and Texas.

• As the space program progressed, new jobs were formed that needed employees to fill. President Kennedy called this the New Frontier. There were many uncharted areas in space that still needed to be explored. After WWII there was a major economic recession and the space program helped everyone out. Since the Soviets were the first to outer space, the United States wanted to better them. The US did so by being the first ones on the moon on July 20, 1969. Neil Armstrong would be the star that walked on the moon. Russia would then send planetary probes to Venus and Mars in 1960. Then in 1974, the US would send Mariner 10 to Mercury. This race has gone on for many years, and will still continue to go on because there is still a whole galaxy to explore. Even though this race was competitive based, we have been able to learn more about our neighboring planets.

McCarthyism

McCarthyism is defined as the sets of unsupported “communist” accusations made by republican senator Joseph McCarthy. At times, McCarty had claimed to have names of hundreds of “communists” within the State department. Although McCarthy made these claims, he never provided a single one of these names. McCarthy had also claimed that the Democratic Party was guilty of “20 years of Treason.” He claimed this was because they had allowed communists to infiltrate our government. McCarthy only claimed specific people of being communist within the senate, otherwise he could have been sued for slander. In 1954 McCarthy made accusations against the US army, which led to a nationally televised investigation on the senate. McCarthy improperly interrogated the “communist” whiteness, which lost him his public support. The senate condemned McCarthy of improper conduct which “tended to bring the senate into dishonor and disrepute.” In 1957 McCarthy died from alcoholism. After McCarthy died, the senate made it illegal to violently overthrough the government.

Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks stood up for her freedom or should i say sat down solid and strong for her freedom.On December 1, 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama the brave woman refused to give up her bus seat for a white passenger. Rosa was obstinate and still refused to give up her seat,she was arrested and fined for violating a city ordinance, but her pride that day later resulted in ending the legal segregation in America and made a great impact of inspiration to freedom everywhere.Rosa and many other African Americans were adamant and sure that they were going to stand up strong to fight this time for there freedom, Mrs. Parks recalled in an interview, "we didn't have any civil rights. It was just a matter of survival, of existing from one day to the next. I remember going to sleep as a girl hearing the Klan ride at night and hearing a lynching and being afraid the house would burn down." Jo Ann Robinson and NAACP leader E. D. Nixon suggested a boycott due to her action and they also had help from minister Martin Luther King to help lead the group.On December5, 1955it was an estimate of 5,000 to 15,000 people boycotting it was the day to stand up for freedom. African Americans filed a lawsuit and boycotted and refused to ride buses for 381 days, all because the brave woman Rosa Parks reused to give up her seat.

By: Paris B. and Matt M.  

Culture in the 1950's

by: Lainey and Micaela

Coming from World War II, the United States industry and manufacturing is still recovering from the traumatic experience that the war had put it through. However, the era of the 1950's is considered to be one of the turning points of American History due to the economic rise as well as its dominating industrialization. It allowed the recovery to be a fast and easy transition and made it able to progress.

During this time period, there are many inventions that have helped make America more efficient and known for its capabilities. Inventions such as automobiles helped transportation from city jobs to home much more convenient. In these times, suburban living made owning a car a necessity. jobs, churches synagogues schools stores and doctor's and dentists' offices were not walking distances it was essential to owning a car. Cars also added better ways for leisure by traveling and made people more connected with family from distant towns.


Also drive-ins and drive-thru's were very popular. families would go and watch a movie at the drive-in or go to drive-thru to get some fast food. waitresses would wear fancy uniforms or roller skates which was added to the fun of front seat dining.


In addition, there are also media improvement and the entertainment of the American citizen is now one of the sources of income for many businesses. More technological outlets for radios and movies are becoming even more popular to the average citizen. More and more people are accustomed to these areas of entertainment available to them. in 1948, there are 18500 movie theatres that draws in 90 million paid admissions for week. However, the invention of better television decreased the number of moviegoers. by 1954, 50% of movies were in color, and this helped attract more and more audience.

In the musical genre, there are more kinds of music being discovered. Music such as rock and roll were becoming popular with the generation and those such as; Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry and Bill Haley were becoming icons for the teens. They help involve more people in the musical department which helped boost the production of instruments. This started the era of musicians and other forms of artistic talents begins to surface.


Even though many other countries were trying hard to salvage what is left after the second World War, United States was able to turn their luck around and start the era of production and entertainment. This not only made America able to give itself a whole new meaning, but it also allowed the country to prosper.

Rosa Parks: One Woman

On December 1, 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama NAACP secretary Rosa Parks refused give a white man her seat on a segregated bus. In response to the bus driver telling her to move, she said, “it was time for someone to stand up, or in my case, sit down. I refused to move.”

After it became clear that she wasn’t going to move for the white man, Parks was arrested. Her case went to the federal court where it was overturned due to the fact that the form of segregation used on the Montgomery buses was unconstitutional. When her case went to the Supreme Court they agreed with the previous court’s decision and claimed the “separate but equal” no longer applied.

Meanwhile, Martin Luther King Jr. led the boycott of the Montgomery buses. A system of carpools was used to ferry around African Americans when needed. This proved that African-Americans could unite to peacefully protest unfair actions.

Parks, once just a seamstress with an interest in boycott segregation, did a lot of things in her everyday life to combat the unfairness. She wouldn’t use colored elevators and instead used the stairs. Similarly, she refused to use segregated water fountains. In the summer of 1955 she attended a workshop promoting inter-racial living for students. Her actions prove that one person can make a world of difference.

-By Becky and Liane

Vietnam War

Vietnam War

The Vietnam war started as an American effort to help the French. Vietnam was a French colony, and many Vietnamese wanted to self rule the colony. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh returned to Vietnam and formed the Vietminh, an organization whose goal was to obtain independence from France. France had no intention of relinquishing its colony; and as a result, they sent troops into Vietnam in 1945. In 1950, the United States entered the struggle and sent 15 million dollars in aid to France. Over the next few years, the United States sent over 1 billion dollars into France's war effort to defeat a "Man" the United States had once supported. In 1954, the French surrendered and the Vietminh controlled Vietnam. Many countries met in Geneva along with the Vietminh and the South Vietnam Anti- Communists to make a peace- agreement. The agreement divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Communists were in the north, while anti communists were in the south. By 1957, the communist group in the south, known as the Vietcong, began attacking the south vietnamese government. The north Vietnamese supported the group and began attacking the south Vietnamese government.

As the South Vietnamese government failed, because of ongoing corruption, the Vietcong presence in South Vietnam meant that the U.S. needed to get involved. In order for the South Vietnamese government to stabilize, the leader Diem would have to be assassinated. In 1963, the U.S. military killed him. Diem death ultimately brought more chaos The destroyer Maddocks was off the North Vietnamese coast, and the crew said that they saw torpedoes being launched. The alleged attack was an excuse for the U.S. to go into war.

The Vietnman war ended up lasting from 1959 until 1975. It is estimated that the U.S. killed 90,000 civilians in the war. 1,100,000 Vietnam's people army and the Nation Front for liberation of Vietnam were killed. 58, 260 american troops were killed in action, while 303, 644 were injured.

Connor

Cody

1950's Culture

The 1950’s were revolutionary times in which Americans celebrated the return of their soldiers. The baby boom during the fifties involved the birthrate skyrocketing after soldiers began returning home. With men home from war, women happily returned to their positions as housewives, yet not all gave up their jobs.
With the baby boom, education systems were forced to grow in order to accommodate for the incoming students; 10 million new students entered elementary school during the 50’s. There were increased jobs in the toy business due to the demand for child entertainment.
Adult leisure became more widespread. Home appliances, like the invention of the washing machine and dishwasher, made it easier for women go out without worrying. Fans went out to sports events and participated in bowling, fishing, and hunting. Magazines and comic books entertained millions of readers. The populace read more fiction books, for their amusement, rather than educational ones; they indulged in romance and mystery novels.
With the growing population, came the automotive boom (auto mania) and in five years car sales rose by one million. Commuting workers needed cars to get from their suburban neighborhoods to more urban areas. With the influx of cars, more efficient routes of travel were built such as highways and interstates.
During the 1950’s advertising flourished, creating mass consumerism. On television, billboards or in magazines, these advertisements brought customers to stores. Housewives were drawn to advertisements for the newest appliances to make their work at home easier. Planned obsolescence became a system for manufacturers so that owners would need to replace an item after a few short years. The credit system allowed people to spend more freely knowing that they could buy now and pay later. Because of this rise in credit, private debt increased by over $100 billion.

by Noel Thompson and Liz Talalai

Mother of the Moder Day Civil Rights Movement

Rosa Louise McCauley was born in Tuskegee, Alabama to a carpenter, James McCauley, and a teacher, Leona McCauley. At the age of 11, she went to a private school founded by liberal minded women in Montgomery. Her mother told her as she was growing up to "take advantage of the opportunities, no matter how few they were. As she grew up, she didn’t have any civil rights. She went to Alabama State Teachers College. After she graduated, she married Raymond Parks and settled down in Montgomery. Together they joined a chapter of the NAACP in 1943 to improve the African-American segregation in the south.
December 1, 1955 was a turning point for Mrs. Parks and for all historians. She took a seat in the front row of the "colored" section of a Montgomery bus. As the bus started to fill up, the driver ordered Mrs. Parks to leave the front of the bus so a white man could sit down not next to an African American. She refused to move. The bus driver threatened to call the police. Mrs. Parks replied, "You may do that."The word of her arrest spread quickly.
That incident led to the formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association, lead by Dr. Martin Luther King, a young pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. The Association called for a boycott of the city owned bus company. It lasted 382 days and brought the Association a lot of attention. It proved to the world that one community could unite and organize a successful protest movement.
After the protest, A Supreme Court decision struck down on the Montgomery ordinance under which Mrs. Parks was fined. They also outlawed racial segregation on public transportation.
Mrs. Parks and her husband moved to Detroit, Michigan in 1957 where Mrs. Parks served on the staff of U.S. Representative John Conyers. In her honor, the Southern Christian Leadership Council established an annual Rosa Parks Award.
Her husband passed in 1977. She then founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development. It sponsors an annual summer program for teenagers called Pathways to Freedom.
Mrs. Parks passed away in 2005 at the age of 92 in Detroit. Rosa Parks changed many lives and liberated many people.

The Space Program

In the 1960's, the United States feared that they were lagging behind the Soviet Union in their technology. As Russia shot their first human into space through the spacecraft called Vostok, the United States decided to launch their own spacecraft. The United States launched a Mercury spacecraft, that was known as Freedom Seven. After being self-confident about the success, President John F. Kennedy decided to take a step further towards victory. After positive reinforcements, Kennedy stated in a joint session that he wanted to take the space missions on the moon. As Russia had more missions in space, there was a lot of tension between the two countries. The United States was then informed that Russia have had their first spacewalk, they were about to launch their secret weapon. The United States was at its peak when they decided to launch Apollo 11, which contained Neil Armstrong and his crew. He was the first man to walk on the moon and the excitement was brewing as he planted the American flag onto the moon's surface. The crew was also able to return to Earth with no problems at all. The success told the Soviet Union that the United States had won the Space Race.

By Arthur Cheung

McCarthyism

During the Cold War, anticommunist feelings were common among United States citizens. Joseph McCarthy, a Republican senator from Wisconsin, saw this as an opportunity to win the reelection in 1952. He began to claim that Communists were taking over the government, and made false accusations against individuals working in the government. This tactic to attack fiercely on suspected Communists was known as McCarthyism. Using his legal immunity from slander in the Congress, he accused officials from the State Department and people of the Democratic Party of being Communists and spreading communism without any evidence. Even though McCarthy’s approach towards combating communism was radical, the majority of the Republicans did not stop his actions because they thought his actions could aid the 1952 presidential election. However, there were six senators led by Senator Margaret Chase Smith who condemned McCarthy’s irresponsible behavior in Congress. Eventually, McCarthy’s popularity plummeted when the public saw a televised Senate investigation on U.S. Army where McCarthy interoggated the witnesses harshly. In response, the Senate condemned his behavior as “dishonor and disrepute”, and he died three years later from alcoholism.

By Alvin

McCarthyism

As the Cold War began, The Soviet Union began to take control of Eastern European countries, which spread communism to these areas. When China became a communist state, Americans became fearful of their nation’s security, since 100000 Americans had also identified themselves as supporters of the communist party. As anti-communist sentiment increased, The Federal Employee Loyalty Program and the House Un-American Activities Committee were formed in 1947. The purpose of both of these organizations was to prosecute people and organizations perceived as being disloyal, and this began the trend of prosecuting suspected communists.

In 1950, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy had acquired a bad reputation as a legislator, and in order to get reelected in 1952, he made the decision to pursue the issue of communist government conspiracies as a sort of publicity stunt. McCarthy first gained a surge in popularity when he made a speech on Lincoln Day in 1950, saying that the government was “infested with communists”. In the early 1950s, McCarthy began accusing people of being communist in spite of having no evidence to back up his claims, and this practice became known as “McCarthyism”. At one point, McCarthy claimed to have the names of 205 communists in the State Department, and furthermore, he accused the Democratic Party of allowing communist infiltration into the government. Generally, Republicans did not speak out against his accusations because they believed the policy of purging communists would help them win the 1952 Presidential election.

In 1954, McCarthy accused the US army of housing and favoring communists, and this began the televised Army-McCarthy Hearings, where McCarthy acted as the prosecutor. However, as newspapers began reporting the court proceedings, the American public began to view McCarthy’s approach as reckless and devious, and within a few months, in addition to being severely censured by the rest of the Senate, his popularity with the public dropped significantly. Although McCarthy still served out the remainder of his term as Senator and continued to speak out against communism, the press no longer paid attention to him, and likewise, the general public lost interest in him.

Written by: Derek O'Connor